Speech Science

Carole T. Ferrand, Ph.D., is Professor of Speech, Language, and Hearing Science at Hofstra University. Her research interests include the acoustic aspects of normal and disordered speech production in monolingual and bilingual speakers, and the acoustics of birdsong. Dr. Ferrand earned a B.A. from Witwatersrand University, and her M.S. and Ph.D. from Pennsylvania State University, University Park.

Foreword

Preface to Third Edition  

Acknowledgments   

Introduction

CHAPTER 1: The Nature of Sound

International System of Units

Basic Physics Concepts

  Mass, force, weight, volume, density

  Speed, velocity, momentum, acceleration, inertia

  Elasticity, stiffness

  Work, energy, power, intensity

  Pressure

Overview of Sound

Air

  Air pressure

  Air flow

  Air pressure, volume, and density

Sound: Changes in Air Pressure

  Elasticity, inertia, and friction

  Wave motion of sound

  Mass/spring system

  Simple harmonic motion

  Frequency, period, wavelength, velocity, and amplitude

Pure tones

  Visually depicting sound waves: waveforms

Complex Sounds

  Visually depicting sound waves: spectra

Sound Absorption, Reflection, Refraction, and Diffraction

Constructive and Destructive Interference

Attributes of Sounds

  Frequency and pitch

  Human range of hearing

  Amplitude, intensity, and loudness

  Decibel scale

  Advantages of the decibel scale

  Applications of the decibel scale

Summary

Review Exercises

 

CHAPTER 2: Resonance

Acoustic Resonance

  Tube resonators and standing waves

  Acoustic resonators as filters

  Bandwidth

  Cutoff frequencies

  Resonance curves

  Parameters of a filter

  Types of filters

Vocal Tract Resonance

  Characteristics of the vocal tract resonator

  Source-filter theory of vowel production

  Formant frequencies related to oral and pharyngeal volumes

  Vowel formant frequencies

  F1/F2 plots

Summary

Review Exercises

 

CHAPTER 3: The Articulatory System

Articulators of the Vocal Tract

  Oral cavity

  Lips

  Mandible

  Teeth

Dental occlusion

  Hard palate

  Soft palate

Muscles of the velum

Velopharyngeal closure

  Tongue

Muscles of the tongue

Tongue movements for speech and swallowing

  Pharynx

Muscles of the pharynx

  Nasal cavities

  Valves of the vocal tract

Traditional Classification System of Consonants and Vowels

  Place of articulation of English consonants

  Manner of articulation of English consonants

Stops

Fricatives

Affricates

Nasals

Glides

Liquids

  Voicing

  Vowel classification

Acoustic Characteristics of Vowels and Consonants

  Spectrographic analysis

  Narrowband and wideband spectrograms

  Vowels

  Diphthongs

  Nasals

  Glides

  Liquids

  Stops

Silent gap

Release burst

Voice onset time

Formant transitions

  Fricatives

  Affricates

The Production of Speech Sounds in Context

  Coarticulation

  Suprasegmentals

Intonation

Stress

Duration

Summary

Review Exercises

 

 

 

CHAPTER 4:Clinical Application: Evaluation and Treatment of Disorders Related to Articulation

Kinematic Measures of Articulatory Variables

  Cineradiography

  Strain gauge

  X-ray microbeam

  Ultrasound

  Electropalatography and glossography

  Magnetic resonance imaging

  Electromagnetic articulography

Articulation and Intelligibility

Dysarthria/Apraxia

  Acoustic measures

Vowel formant analysis

Spectral analysis of consonants

  Kinematic measures

Cineradiography

Strain gauge

Electropalatography

Electromagnetic articulography

Hearing Impairment

  Acoustic measures

  Kinematic measures

Electropalatography and glossography

  Cochlear implantation

Acoustic measures

Kinematic measures

Phonological/Articulatory Disorders

  Acoustic measures

  Kinematic measures

Ultrasound

Electropalatography

Cleft Palate

Summary

Review Exercises

Integrative Case Studies

 

CHAPTER 5:The Phonatory system

Laryngeal Skeleton

  Bones and cartilages

  Joints of the larynx

Valves within the Larynx

  Aryepiglottic folds

  False vocal folds

  True vocal folds

  Cover-body model

  Glottis

Muscles of the Larynx

  Extrinsic muscles

  Intrinsic muscles

Myoelastic-Aerodynamic Theory of Phonation

  Mucosal wave

  Phonation threshold pressure

  Glottal spectrum

  Harmonic spacing

  Nearly periodic nature of the human voice

Vocal Quality

  Normal vocal quality

  Abnormal vocal qualities

Breathy voice

Rough/hoarse voice

Vocal Registers

  Physiological and acoustic characteristics of modal, pulse, and falsetto registers

  Use of different registers in singing and speaking

Acoustic Measures of Phonatory Variables

  Frequency and intensity variables

Average fundamental frequency

Frequency variability

Maximum phonation frequency range

  Voice amplitude/intensity

Average amplitude level

Amplitude variability

Dynamic range

Voice range profile

  Perturbation measures

  Noise measures

Summary

Review Exercises

 

CHAPTER 6: Clinical Application: Evaluation and Treatment of Phonatory Disorders

Electroglottography

  EGG and registers

  EGG slope quotients

Endoscopy and Videostroboscopy

High speed Digital Imaging

Videokymography

Advantages of Acoustic and Visual Analysis of Phonatory Function

Laryngeal Aging

  Acoustic changes over the lifespan

Neurological Disorders

  Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis

  Parkinson’s disease

  Unilateral vocal fold paresis/paralysis

  Spasmodic dysphonia

  Paradoxical vocal fold motion

  Benign mucosal lesions, muscle tension dysphonia, and/or GERD

Laryngeal Cancer

Hearing Impairment

Transsexual Voice

Summary

Review Exercises

Integrative Case Studies

 

CHAPTER 7: The Respiratory System

Pulmonary Apparatus

  Bronchial tree

  Chest wall

Muscles of Respiration

  Accessory muscles of respiration

  Muscles of the abdomen

Pleural Linkage

Moving Air Into and Out of the Lungs

  Inhalation

  Exhalation

  Rate of breathing

Lung Volumes and Capacities

  Resting expiratory level

  Lung volumes

Tidal volume

Inspiratory reserve volume

Expiratory reserve volume

Residual volume

Dead air

  Lung capacities

Vital capacity

Functional residual capacity

Inspiratory capacity

Total lung capacity

Differences between Breathing for Life and Breathing for Speech

  Location of air intake

  Ratio of time for inhalation versus exhalation

  Volume of air inhaled and exhaled per cycle

  Muscle activity for exhalation

  Chest wall shape

Speech Breathing for Isolated Vowels and Connected Speech

  Breathing patterns for speech

  Changes in speech breathing over the lifespan

  Features of speech breathing in children

  Features of speech breathing in older adults

Summary

Review Exercises

 

CHAPTER 8: Clinical Application: Evaluation and Treatment of Respiratory Disorders

Measurement of Respiratory Variables

  Pulmonary function testing

  Respiratory kinematic analysis

Plethysmography

Linearized magnetometers

  Air pressures

  Airflow

Respiratory Function and Speech Production

  Classification of respiratory problems

  Symptoms of respiratory disorders

Principles of Clinical Management of Speech Breathing Disorders

  Neurological disorders

Parkinson’s disease

Cerebellar disease

Cervical spinal cord injury

Cerebral palsy

  Mechanical ventilation

  Voice disorders

  Asthma

  Paradoxical vocal fold motion

Summary

Review Exercises

Integrative Case Studies

 

CHAPTER 9: The Auditory System

Outer Ear

Tympanic Membrane

Middle Ear

  Eustachian tube

  Ossicles

  Muscles

  Functions of the middle ear

Inner Ear

  Cochlea

  Basilar membrane

  Cochlear function

Perception of Speech

  Segmentation problem

  The role of redundancy in speech perception

  Instrumental analysis of vowel and consonant perception

Perception of Vowels and Diphthongs

  Diphthongs

Consonants

  Categorical perception

  Multiple acoustic cues

  Influence of coarticulation

Perception of Consonants

  Liquids
  Glides

  Nasals

  Stops

  Fricatives

  Affricates

Hearing Loss

  Hearing loss and speech perception

Summary

Review Exercises

 

CHAPTER 10:Clinical Application: Evaluation and Treatment of Disorders Related to Hearing Impairment

Measurement of Auditory Variables

  Immittance audiometry

  Tympanometry

Tympanometric procedures

Tympanogram shapes

Advantages of tympanometry

  Static-acoustic middle ear admittance

  Acoustic reflex testing

  Otoacoustic emissions testing

Spontaneous and evoked otoacoustic emissions

  Auditory brainstem response testing

Evaluation of Speech Perception

Cochlear Implants

  Training for cochlear implant users

Otitis Media and Speech Perception

Language and Reading Disability and Speech Perception

Articulatory Problems and Speech Perception

Summary

Review Exercises

Integrative Case Study

 

CHAPTER 11: The Nervous System

Brain tissue

  Glial cells

  Neurons

Types of neurons

Sensory receptors

Neuronal function

Conduction velocity

Central and Peripheral Nervous System

  Central nervous system

  Meninges

  Ventricles

  Functional brain anatomy

  Cortex

  Lobes of the brain

    Frontal lobe

Parietal lobes

Temporal lobes

Occipital lobe

Limbic lobe

  Cortical connections

Commissural fibers

Association fibers

Projection fibers

Subcortical Areas of the Brain

  Basal nuclei

  Thalamus

  Hypothalamus

Brainstem

  Midbrain

  Pons

  Medulla

Cerebellum

Spinal Cord

  Spinal nerves

Cranial Nerves

  CN V: Trigeminal

  CN VII: Facial

  CN VIII: Vestibulocochlear

  CN IX: Glossopharyngeal

  CN X: Vagus

  CN XII: Hypoglossal

Blood Supply to the Brain

The Language Zone

Motor Control Systems Involved in Speech Production

  Motor cortex

  Upper and lower motor neurons

  Direct and indirect systems

  Motor units

Principles of Motor Control

  Feedback and feedforward

  Efference copy

Summary

Review Exercises

 

CHAPTER 12: Clinical Application: Brain Imaging in the Evaluation and Treatment of Disorders of the Nervous System

Techniques for Imaging Brain Structure

  Computerized tomography

  Magnetic resonance imaging

Techniques for Imaging Brain Function

  Functional magnetic resonance imaging

  Positron emission tomography

  Single photon emission computerized tomography

  Electroencephalography and evoked potentials

  Transcranial magnetic stimulation

Use of Brain Imaging Techniques in Communication Disorders

  Stuttering

  Stroke

  Parkinson’s disease

  Multiple sclerosis

  Alzheimer’s disease

Summary

Review Exercises

Integrative Case Study

 

CHAPTER 13: Models and Theories of Speech Production and Perception

Models

Theories

Speech Production

  Spatial and articulatory target models

  Feedback and feedforward models

  The DIVA model

  Action theory

Speech Perception

  Motor theory

Summary

Review Exercises

 

 Glossary   

References  

Index