The Underwater Handbook

I The Human Machine.- A. Introduction.- B. The Mechanics of Movement.- 1. Bones.- 2. Joints.- 3. Muscles.- C. The Production of Energy.- 1. The Fuel.- 2. The Chemical Laboratory.- D. The Transportation System.- 1. The Heart.- 2. Arteries, Capillaries, and Veins.- 3. The Blood.- 4. Blood Circulation.- E. Temperature Control.- F. Gas Exchange.- G. The Information Receptors.- 1. Vision and the Eye.- 2. Hearing and the Ear.- 3. Equilibrium and the Inner Ear.- 4. Taste and Smell.- 5. Touch.- 6. Kinesthetic and Organic Sensibilities.- H. Body Measurement (Anthropometrics).- I. Psychological Overlay.- 1. The Brain and Its Functions.- 2. Communication.- 3. Man-Machine Relationship.- 4. Memory.- 5. Motivation.- 6. Stress.- References.- II The Ocean as an Environment.- A. Introduction.- B. Physical and Chemical Properties of Sea Water.- 1. Pressure and Depth.- 2. Specific Gravity.- 3. Density.- 4. Salinity.- 5. Compressibility.- 6. Electrical Conductivity.- 7. Thermal Properties of Sea Water.- a. Temperature.- b. Thermal Expansion.- c. Thermal Conductivity.- d. Specific Heat.- e. Latent Heat of Evaporation.- f. Adiabatic Temperature Changes.- 8. Colligative Properties of Sea Water.- a. Vapor Pressure Lowering.- b. Freezing Point.- c. Osmotic Pressure.- 9. Transmission of Sound in Sea Water.- a. Dispersion, Scattering, and Reflection.- b. Absorption.- 10. Light Transmission in Sea Water.- a. Extinction Coefficient.- b. Absorption Coefficient.- c. Refractive Index.- 11. Summary.- C. Coping with Waves, Tides, and Currents.- 1. General Background.- 2. Waves.- 3. Surf.- 4. Currents.- a. Currents in Oceans and Large Lakes.- b. Rip Currents.- c. Tides and Tidal Currents.- d. Diving in Currents.- e. Effects of Currents on Undersea Operations.- 5. Shoreline Diving Entries.- a. Sand Beach Entry.- b. Rock Shore Entry.- References.- III Man in the Ocean Environment: Physical Factors.- A. Basic Concepts.- B. Gases.- C. Solubility and Partial Pressures.- D. Buoyancy.- E. Effects of Increased Pressure.- 1. Aural Barotrauma.- a. Aural Barotrauma of Ascent.- b. Aural Barotrauma of Descent.- c. External-Ear Barotrauma.- d. Prevention of Aural Barotrauma.- 2. Blowup.- 3. Gastrointestinal Barotrauma.- 4. Pulmonary Barotrauma.- 5. Sinus Barotrauma.- 6. Squeeze.- 7. Toothache.- 8. Vertigo.- References.- IV Man in the Ocean Environment: Physiological Factors.- A. Respiration in a Hyperbaric Environment.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Physiology of Respiration.- a. General Respiratory Function.- b. Oxygen Requirements.- c. Carbon Dioxide Elimination.- d. Control of Respiration.- e. Breath-Hold Diving.- f. Hyperventilation.- 3. Alveolar Ventilation.- a. Dead Space.- b. Ventilation and Carbon Dioxide.- c. Ventilation and Oxygen.- d. Exertion at Depth.- e. Gas Exchange.- 4. Respiratory Mechanics.- a. General Considerations.- b. Ambient Pressure Differences.- c. Pressure Differences Caused by Immersion.- d. Lung Volume Alterations Caused by Postural Changes.- 5. The Work of Breathing.- a. General Considerations.- b. The Breathing Mixture, Gas Density.- c. Flow Rates.- d. Maximum Breathing Capacity and Flow Rates.- e. Resistance to Breathing in Self-Contained Diving.- f. Respiratory Rate and Hyperbaric Environments.- 6. Conclusion.- B. Cardiovascular Factors.- 1. Immersion to the Neck.- a. Negative-Pressure Breathing.- b. Density.- c. Water Temperature.- d. Intrathoracic Blood Volume.- 2. Breath-Hold Diving.- a. Diving Bradycardia in Man.- b. Water Temperature.- c. The Role of Cold Receptors on the Face.- d. Cardiac Arrhythmia.- e. Cardiac Output.- f. Venous-Return Mechanism.- g. Effect of Changes in Ambient Pressure.- 3. Air Scuba Diving.- a. Effects of Oxygen at High Pressure.- b. Effects of Depth.- 4. Mixed-Gas Saturation Diving.- a. Changes in Heart Rate.- b. Effects of Gas Density.- c. Temperature.- d. Effects of Helium.- C. Oxygen Toxicity.- 1. Pulmonary Oxygen Toxicity.- a. Toxic Effects upon Lung Pathology.- b. Effects upon Pulmonary Function.- c. Signs and Symptoms of Pulmonary Oxygen Poisoning.- d. Tolerance.- e. Mechanisms.- f. Treatment.- g. Prevention.- 2. CNS Oxygen Toxicity.- a. Convulsions.- b. Mechanisms.- c. Treatment.- d. Residual Effects.- e. Prevention.- 3. Other Toxic Effects.- a. The Eye.- b. The Blood.- D. Physiological Aspects of Nitrogen Narcosis.- 1. Narcotic Potency and Possible Mechanisms.- 2. Interactions.- a. Carbon Dioxide.- b. Hypoxia and Hyperbaric Oxygen.- 3. Neurological Measurements.- a. EEG Activity.- b. Alpha Blocking and Critical Fusion Frequency (CFF).- c. Evoked Brain Responses.- 4. Predisposition.- 5. Adaptation.- E. The Physiology of Breathing Mixtures.- 1. General Planning Considerations.- 2. Properties of Gas.- 3. Factors Relating to Choice of Gas.- a. Oxygen: Metabolic Needs and Toxicity.- b. Inert Gas Narcosis.- c. HPNS and Hyperbaric Arthralgia.- d. Density and Viscosity.- e. Voice Distortion.- f. Thermal Properties.- g. Decompression Considerations and Counterdiffusion.- h. Fire Safety.- i. Cost and Logistics.- 4. Conventional Breathing Mixtures.- a. Air and Nitrogen-Oxygen Mixtures.- b. Helium (Mixed-Gas Diving).- c. Oxygen.- 5. Experimental Breathing Mixtures.- a. Hydrogen.- b. Neon.- c. Argon.- d. Other Gases.- e. Liquid Breathing.- 6. Breathing-Gas Purity Standards.- a. Purity Standards.- b. Contaminants.- c. Testing.- 7. Physiology of the Wrong Gas.- a. Low Oxygen (Hypoxia).- b. High Oxygen (Hyperoxia).- c. Lack of Inert Gas.- d. High Carbon Dioxide (Hypercapnia).- e. Low Carbon Dioxide (Hypocapnia).- f. Inert Gas Narcosis.- g. Carbon Monoxide.- F. The High Pressure Nervous Syndrome and Other High-Pressure Effects.- 1. History.- 2. The High Pressure Nervous Syndrome.- a. Tremor.- b. Convulsions.- c. Somnolence and EEG Changes.- d. Dizziness and Nausea.- 3. Hyperbaric Arthralgia.- 4. Hyperbaric Bradycardia.- 5. Etiology and Mechanisms.- a. HPNS.- b. Hyperbaric Arthralgia.- 6. Alleviation.- a. Compression Schedule.- b. Pharmacological.- 7. Areas in Need of Further Study.- G. Cold.- 1. Thermoregulation in Man.- a. The Role of the Hypothalamus.- b. Maintaining Body Temperature.- c. Effects of Thermal Stress.- 2. Problems of Cold Exposure in Underwater Work.- a. Immersion and Surface Swimming.- b. Shallow and Deep Dives Using Air or Helium-Oxygen.- c. Deep Saturation Diving, Dry Chambers.- d. Saturation Diving, Open-Sea or "Wet-Pot" Chambers.- 3. Methods of Measurement.- 4. Physiological Effects of Cold in Underwater Operations.- a. Nervous System.- b. Cardiovascular-Renal System.- c. Respiratory System.- d. Endocrine System.- e. Miscellaneous Effects of Cold.- H. Diet and Metabolism.- References.- V Man in the Ocean Environment: Psychophysiological Factors.- A. Vision.- 1. Basic Processes of the Eye.- a. Introduction.- b. Functioning of the Eye.- 2. Photopic or Daylight Vision.- a. Visual Acuity in Air.- b. Visual Acuity under Water.- c. Depth Perception.- d. Perception of Size, Shape, Position, and Color.- 3. Scotopic Vision.- a. Scotopic Vision under Normal Conditions.- b. Scotopic Vision under Water.- 4. Effect of Underwater Experience.- 5. Underwater Optical Equipment.- a. Masks.- b. Underwater Contact Lenses.- 6. Others Factors Affecting Vision under Water.- a. Effect of Confining Quarters on Acuity.- b. Effects of Pressure.- c. Effects of Oxygen.- d. Effects of Nitrogen.- e. Effects of Drugs.- B. Hearing.- 1. Underwater Hearing and Air- and Bone-Conducted Hearing.- 2. Absolute Thresholds of Underwater Hearing.- a. General.- b. Measurement of Threshold Values.- c. Effect of Air in External Auditory Meatus.- d. Effect of Depth.- e. Effect of Wearing a Hood.- 3. Underwater Auditory Discriminations.- 4. Localization of Underwater Sounds.- 5. Maximum Intensity for Safe Underwater Hearing.- 6. Human Auditory Responses to Air-Pressure Changes.- a. Pressure Equalized across the Eardrum.- b. Mild Differential Pressures across the Eardrum.- c. Occluded Eustachian Tube.- d. Middle-Ear Involvement.- e. Inner-Ear Involvement.- f. Central Nervous System Involvement.- 7. Incidence of Auditory Involvement.- a. Among Swimmers Generally.- b. Among Amateur Skin and Scuba Divers.- c. Among Caisson Workers.- d. Among Inexperienced Hyperbaric Chamber Subjects and Diving Trainees.- e. Among Professional Divers.- f. Among Breath-Hold Divers.- C. Vestibular Function.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Symptoms of Vestibular Problems.- a. Motion Sickness.- b. Nystagmus.- c. Vertigo.- 3. Vestibular Dysfunction in Diving.- a. Vertigo Associated with Inadequate Middle-Ear Clearing.- b. Vestibular Decompression Sickness.- c. Isobaric Vertigo.- D. Other Sensory Functions.- 1. Taste and Smell.- 2. Kinesthetic, Proprioceptive, and Organic Effects.- 3. Touch.- Terminology, Physical Constants, and Definitions of Terms.- References.- VI Man in the Ocean Environment: Performance.- A. Introduction.- B. Tests and Measures of Diver Performance.- 1. Tactile Sensitivity.- a. Vibratory Sensitivity.- b. Two-Point and Two-Edge Sensitivity.- c. Point-Pressure Sensitivity.- d. Pressure Reproduction.- e. Towse Touch Test.- 2. Biomechanical Forces.- a. Handgrip Strength.- b. Hand-Torqueing Strength.- c. Rotary and Linear Forces.- d. Lifting and Pulling Forces.- e. Multiple-Force Test Platforms.- 3. Steadiness and Tremor.- a. Tremor Transducers.- b. Paper/Pencil and Apparatus Tests.- c. Postural-Equilibrium Tests.- 4. Dexterity and Assembly.- a. Finger-Dexterity Tests.- b. Manual-Dexterity Tests.- c. Assembly Tests.- 5. Tracking and Coordination.- a. Rotary Pursuit Test.- b. Two-Hand Coordination Test.- c. Multidimensional Pursuit Test.- 6. Reaction Time and Vigilance.- a. Simple Visual Reaction-Time Test.- b. Choice Reaction-Time Test.- c. Peripheral Light-Monitoring Test.- 7. Perceptual Processes.- a. Postural-Orientation Tests.- b. Geographic-Orientation Tests.- c. Perceptual-Speed Tests.- d. Time-Estimation Test.- e. Hidden-Patterns Test.- f. Stroop Word-Color Test.- g. Wechsler Bellevue Digit-Symbol Test.- 8. Cognitive Processes.- a. Arithmetic-Computation Tests.- b. Memory Tests.- c. Free-Association Test.- d. Sentence-Comprehension Test.- e. Conceptual-Reasoning Test.- f. Navigation Problem-Solving Test.- 9. Mood and Adjustment.- a. Task Orientation.- b. Emotional Stability.- c. Social Compatability.- 10. SINDBAD Test Battery.- C. Summaries of Performance Research in the Diving Environment.- 1. Performance in Hyperbaric Air.- a. Cognitive-Task Performance.- b. Reaction Time and Perceptual Speed.- c. Dexterity-Task Performance.- d. Modifying Factors.- 2. Performance in Hyperbaric Heliox.- a. Tremor, Steadiness, and Dexterity Tasks.- b. Reaction Time and Perceptual Speed.- c. Cognitive Tasks.- 3. Work and Maneuver in a Tractionless, Viscous Medium.- a. Basic Force Production.- b. Swimming and Load Carrying.- c. Orientation and Maneuvering.- 4. Performance in the Cold.- a. Tactile Sensitivity.- b. Grip Strength.- c. Steadiness and Tremor.- d. Dexterity and Assembly.- e. Tracking and Coordination.- f. Reaction Time and Vigilance.- g. Memory and Other Cognitive Processes.- 5. Adjustment to Isolation and Confinement in Habitats.- a. Performance and Adjustment in SEALAB II.- b. Performance and Adjustment in TEKTITE.- 6. Reactions to Generalized Stress in the Diving Experience.- a. Dexterity and Assembly Tasks.- b. Vigilance Monitoring.- c. Time Estimation.- References.- VII Decompression Sickness.- A. Introduction.- B. Factors Relevant to the Pathogenesis of Decompression Sickness.- 1. Physical Factors.- a. Inert Gas Solubility.- b. Bubble Nucleation and Growth.- 2. Biological Factors.- a. Pulmonary Exchange.- b. Transdermal Exchange.- c. Blood Flow and Distribution between and within Tissues.- d. Site of Bubble Nucleation and Growth.- e. Diffusion and Convection in Tissues.- 3. Summary.- C. Diagnosis.- 1. Incidence of Decompression Sickness and Appearance of Symptoms.- 2. Major Symptoms.- 3. New Methods of Diagnosis.- a. Physical Methods.- b. Biochemical Methods.- D. Prevention.- 1. Preparation.- 2. Operational Factors that Influence Decompression Procedures.- 3. Decompression Schedules.- a. Models Utilized to Compute Decompression Schedules.- b. Decompression Schedules Available for Human Use.- c. Air Decompression Schedules.- d. Mixed-Gas Decompression Schedules.- E. Treatment.- 1. Diagnosis and Emergency Action during Transportation to a Recompression Chamber.- 2. Recompression Treatment.- F. Decompression Schedules.- 1. U. S. Navy Decompression Schedules for Subsaturation Air Diving.- a. Schedule 1.1: U. S. Navy Standard Air Decompression Table.- b. Schedule 1.2: No-Decompression Limits and Repetitive Group Designation Table for No-Decompression Air Dives.- c. Schedule 1.3: Surface Interval Credit Table for Air Decompression Dives.- d. Schedule 1.4: Repetitive Dive Timetable for Air Dives.- e. Schedule 1.5: U. S. Navy Standard Air Decompression Table for Exceptional Exposures.- f. Schedule 1.6: Surface Decompression Table Using Oxygen.- g. Schedule 1.7: Surface Decompression Table Using Air for Air Diving.- 2. Decompression Schedules for Compressed Air Work.- a. Decompression Tables.- b. Repetitive Diving Procedures.- c. Suggestions for the Guidance of Compressed Air Workers.- 3. Surface Decompression Table for Saturation Diving with Air (Schedule 3.1).- a. Limits.- b. Surfacing Instructions.- 4. Air Excursion Tables for Saturation Diving on Air or N2-O2 Mixtures.- 5. Decompression Schedules for Subsaturation He-O2 Diving.- a. Schedule 5.1: He-O2 Partial Pressures-40-380 ft.- b. Schedule 5.2: Helium-Oxygen Decompression Schedule (Normal and Exceptional Exposures).- c. Schedule 5.3: Emergency Schedule (He-O2).- d. Schedule 5.4: Emergency Schedule (Air).- e. Schedule 5.5: Helium-Oxygen Decompression Schedule for Mixed-Gas Scuba Using 68% Helium-32% Oxygen Supply Mixture.- f. Schedule 5.6: Helium-Oxygen Decompression Table for Mixed-Gas Scuba Using 68% Helium-32% Oxygen Supply Mixture and Oxygen Decompression.- g. Schedule 5.7: No-Decompression Limits and Repetitive Group Designation Mixed-Gas Scuba No-Decompression Table for Helium-Oxygen Dives.- h. Schedule 5.8: Surface Interval Credit Table for Mixed-Gas Scuba Helium-Oxygen Decompression Dives.- i. Schedule 5.9: Repetitive Dive Timetable for Mixed-Gas Scuba Helium-Oxygen Dives.- 6. Decompression Procedures for Excursion Diving from Saturation, While Breathing He-O2 Gas Mixtures.- a. Depth Limitations.- b. Habitat Pressure.- c. Habitat Atmosphere Control.- d. UBA Gas Mixture.- e. Description of Schedules.- f. Instructions for Use of Schedules.- 7. Emergency Abort Schedule (Schedule 7.1).- 8. U. S. Navy Treatment Schedules for Decompression Sickness.- a. Schedule 8.1: Air Treatment.- b. Schedule 8.2: Air Treatment.- c. Schedule 8.3: Air Treatment.- d. Schedule 8.4: Air Treatment.- e. Schedule 8.5: Oxygen Treatment.- f. Schedule 8.6: Oxygen Treatment.- g. Schedule 8.7: Oxygen Treatment.- h. Schedule 8.8: Oxygen Treatment.- References.- VIII Operational Safety Considerations.- A. Introduction.- B. Organization and Planning.- 1. General Safety Precautions.- a. Personnel.- b. Equipment.- c. Safety during Diving Operations.- d. Recompression Chambers.- e. Special Handling of Compressed-Gas Cylinders.- 2. Special Situations.- 3. Diving at Altitude.- 4. Polar or Ice Diving.- C. Predive Conditions.- 1. Age.- 2. Drugs.- 3. Alcohol.- 4. Cigarette Smoking.- 5. Diet.- 6. Obesity.- 7. Fatigue.- 8. Exercise.- 9. Emotional Instability.- 10. Respiratory Infections.- D. Underwater Blast.- 1. Physical Aspects of the Explosion.- a. The Initial Compression Wave.- b. Reflection of Primary Pressure Pulse.- c. The Gas Sphere and Subsidiary Pulses.- d. Surface Effects.- 2. Mechanisms of Injury.- a. Peak Pressure.- b. Momentum or Impulse.- c. Degree of Immersion.- 3. Clinical Aspects and Pathology.- a. Effect on the Lungs and Thoracic Cavity.- b. Effect on the Abdomen and Air-Filled Viscera.- 4. Treatment.- 5. Protective Measures.- E. Fire Safety.- 1. Introduction.- 2. History.- 3. Fire Aspects.- a. Ignition.- b. Atmosphere.- c. Materials.- 4. Methods of Fire Prevention and Control.- a. Fire Detection.- b. Fire Extinguishers.- c. General Safety Procedures.- d. Areas in Need of Further Study.- F. Electrical Safety.- 1. Physiology of Electric Shock.- a. General.- b. The Heart.- 2. Influencing Factors.- a. Body Pathway of Conduction.- b. Current Intensity.- c. Duration.- d. Type and Frequency of Current.- 3. Underwater Shock Hazards.- 4. Protective Measures.- 5. Treatment.- G. Drowning.- 1. Importance of the Problem.- 2. Causes of Drowning.- 3. Physiology of Drowning.- 4. Treatment.- 5. Prevention.- H. Other Hazards.- 1. Marine Life.- 2. Fouling.- 3. Infections.- 4. Fatigue.- 5. Flying after Diving.- I. Problems of Escape and Rescue.- 1. Submarines.- a. Escape.- b. Rescue.- 2. Submersibles and Habitats.- References.- IX Operational Equipment.- A. Hand-Held Tools.- 1. Underwater Tool Design.- 2. Survey of Tool Categories.- a. Standard Hand-Held Tools.- b. Special Hand-Held Tools.- c. Self-Contained Power Tools.- d. Remotely Supplied Power Tools.- 3. Torqueing Tools.- 4. Power Tools (Selected).- B. Power Sources and Requirements.- 1. Power Requirements.- 2. Hydraulic Power Sources.- 3. Batteries.- 4. Electrical/Electronic Equipment.- 5. Electrohydraulic and Cryogenic Pneumatic Power Sources.- 6. Fuel Cells as Power Sources.- 7. Comparison of Various Power Sources.- a. Power System Parameters.- b. Umbilical Power Supply.- c. Mission Parameters.- d. General Selection Guides.- C. Personal Equipment.- 1. Diving Suits.- a. Neoprene Suits.- b. Noncompressible Wet Suits.- c. Dry Suits.- d. Pressure-Compensated Constant-Volume Dry Suit.- e. Heating Systems for Divers' Suits.- f. Unisuit.- g. The Armored, 1-atm Suit.- 2. Breathing Apparatus.- a. Air-Breathing Systems.- b. Mixed-Gas Systems.- c. Open-Circuit Underwater Breathing Apparatus.- d. Semiclosed-Circuit Breathing Apparatus.- e. Closed-Circuit Breathing Apparatus.- f. Cryogenic Breathing Apparatus.- 3. Ancillary Equipment.- a. Masks.- b. Fins.- c. Localization Equipment.- D. Human Engineering Factors.- 1. The Diver as a Resource.- 2. Evaluation Procedure.- 3. Biomechanical Capabilities.- E. Environmental Equipment.- 1. Diving Systems.- a. Advanced Diving System.- b. Deep Diving Systems.- c. The 1-atm Work System.- 2. Habitats.- 3. Swimmer Vehicles.- 4. Manned Submersibles.- a. Tethered Vehicles.- b. Self-Propelled Vehicles.- c. Lockout Capability.- d. Manipulator Capability.- e. Navigation.- 5. Unmanned Submersibles.- a. Towed Submersibles.- b. Cable-Controlled Submersibles.- c. Cableless Submersibles.- 6. Buoyancy Devices.- 7. Hyperbaric Facilities.- a. Design Factors and Certifications.- b. Examples of Hyperbaric Chambers.- c. Current Research Facilities.- 8. Environmental Control.- a. Maintenance of Desired Partial Pressure of Oxygen.- b. Removal of Carbon Dioxide and Trace Contaminants.- c. Temperature and Humidity Control.- d. Maintenance of Air Circulation and Extravehicular Support.- 9. Instrumentation.- Terminology.- References.- X Underwater Communications.- A. Introduction.- B. Normal Speech Generation Process.- C. Communication Systems.- 1. General.- 2. Underwater Communication Systems.- a. Acoustic Systems.- b. Hard-Line Systems.- c. Electromagnetic Radiation Systems.- d. Electric Field Potential Systems.- 3. Special Microphone and Earphone Considerations.- D. Factors Distorting Speech in the Underwater Environment.- 1. Noise Distortion Factors Due to Reverberation and Mouthpieces.- 2. Effects of Pressure upon Speech.- 3. Effects of Gas Mixtures.- a. Summary of Speech He-O2 Research.- b. Helium Unscramblers.- E. Human Factors Considerations in Underwater Communication.- 1. Psychological Factors.- a. Adaptation to Voice Changes.- b. General Intelligibility Interference Factors.- 2. Physiological Considerations.- a. Basic Factors.- b. Effects of Exertion.- 3. Packaging of Equipment.- 4. Design Problem Considerations and Recommendations.- F. Summary.- Terminology.- References.- XI Selection and Training of Divers.- A. Selection.- 1. Objectives of Selection.- 2. Medical History.- 3. Physical and Medical Examination.- a. Age.- b. Weight.- c. Vision.- d. Color Vision.- e. Teeth.- f. Ears.- g. Nose and Throat.- h. Respiratory System.- i. Cardiovascular System.- j. Gastrointestinal System.- k. Genitourinary System.- l. Skin.- m. Pregnancy.- 4. Requirements in Other Countries.- 5. Psychiatric Examination.- 6. Psychological Tests.- 7. Training Course as Selection Device.- 8. Pressure Test.- 9. Arctic, Antarctic, or Under-the-Ice Diving.- B. U. S. Navy Divers.- 1. Diver Designation.- a. Officers.- b. Enlisted Divers.- 2. Availability of Training.- a. Qualifying Criteria.- b. Selection Procedure.- 3. Naval Schools of Diving.- 4. Course Unit Contents.- C. Training-Civilian Sector.- 1. Background.- 2. Recreational Diver Training.- 3. Commercial Diver Training.- 4. College, University, and Institutional Programs.- a. Degree Programs in the Marine Sciences and Related Fields.- b. Nondegree Programs in Marine Sciences and Related Fields.- D. Training Pays Off.- 1. Safety.- 2. Productivity.- 3. Pleasure.- References.