Human Nervous System (eBook)

Front Cover 1
The Human Nervous System 4
Copyright 5
Dedication 6
Contents 8
Contributors 10
Preface 12
Acknowledgments 12
Section I - Evolution and Development 14
Chapter 1 - Brain Evolution 15
The Human Brain as an Outlier 15
The Human Brain in Numbers 16
Cerebral Cortex and Connectivity 17
Concerted Expansion of Cerebral Cortex and Cerebellum 19
Human Brain Evolution: Comparison with Great Apes 20
Hominin Evolution: Estimates of Numbers of Brain Neurons in Prehistoric Homo 21
Human Brain Metabolism Revisited 22
Conclusion: Remarkable, Yet not Extraordinary 24
References 25
Chapter 2 - Development of the Peripheral Nervous System 27
Cranial Nerves 27
Somatic Peripheral Nervous System 34
Autonomic and Enteric Nervous System 36
References 39
Chapter 3 - Fetal Development of the Central Nervous System 44
Cerebral Cortex 45
Deep Telencephalic Nuclei 53
Diencephalon 64
Midbrain 72
Cerebellum and Pre-Cerebellar Nuclei 74
Pons and Medulla 78
Spinal Cord 82
References 84
Section II - Peripheral Nervous System and Spinal Cord 94
Chapter 4 - Peripheral Nervous System Topics 95
Introduction 96
History 97
Embryology 99
Dorsal Root Ganglion and the Pseudo-Unipolar Neurons 103
Schwann Cells, Satellite Cells, and Mast Cells 110
Nerve Fibers 117
Plexus 120
Proprioception and Endplates 131
Peripheral Nervous System Engineering 139
References 143
Chapter 5 - Peripheral Autonomic Pathways 154
General Organization of Autonomic Pathways 154
Cranial Autonomic Pathways 157
Sympathetic Pathways 168
Pelvic Autonomic Pathways 176
Enteric Plexuses 180
Adrenal Medulla and Paraganglia 182
Concluding Remarks 183
References 183
Chapter 6 - Spinal Cord: Regional Anatomy, Cytoarchitecture and Chemoarchitecture 199
Cytoarchitecture of the Human Spinal Cord 201
Chemoarchitecture of the Human Spinal Cord 218
References 235
Chapter 7 - Spinal Cord: Connections 246
Primary Afferent Projections to the Spinal Cord 246
Propriospinal Pathways 247
Ascending Spinal Projections 249
Descending Spinal Projections 258
Descending Brainstem Projections 261
Projections from the Retroambiguus Nucleus to the Spinal Cord 265
Hypothalamic and Diencephalic Projections to the Spinal Cord 265
Coeruleospinal and Raphespinal Tracts 266
Other Descending Projections from the Trigeminal and Dorsal Column Nuclei 266
Cerebellospinal Projections 266
References 266
Section III - Brainstem And Cerebellum 272
Chapter 8 - Organization of Brainstem Nuclei 273
Abbreviations Used in the Figures 275
Autonomic Regulatory Centers 313
Reticular Formation 317
Tegmental Nuclei 321
Locus Coeruleus 322
Raphe Nuclei 323
Ventral Mesencephalic Tegmentum and Substantia Nigra 325
Cranial Motor Nuclei 326
Somatosensory System 327
Vestibular Nuclei 329
Auditory System 330
Visual System 331
Precerebellar Nuclei and Red Nucleus 331
Conclusion 334
References 334
Chapter 9 - Reticular Formation: Eye Movements, Gaze and Blinks 341
Introduction 342
Eye and Head Movements 343
Eyelid and Blink 364
References 370
Chapter 10 - Periaqueductal Gray 380
External Boundaries of the PAG 381
Internal Boundaries of the PAG 381
Chemoarchitecture of the Primate PAG 388
Connectivity of the Primate PAG 392
Functional Aspects 399
Conclusion 407
References 407
Chapter 11 - Raphe Nuclei 414
Divisions of the Raphe Nuclei 416
Connectivity 421
Functional Considerations 427
References 431
Chapter 12 - Locus Coeruleus 438
Introduction 438
Development and Topographical Organization 438
Morphology and Neurochemistry of LC Neurons 440
Functional Connectivity 440
Physiology and Behavior 444
LC Involvement in the Pathophysiology of Age-Related Neurologic Disease 446
Summary 447
References 447
Chapter 13 - Substantia Nigra, Ventral Tegmental Area, and Retrorubral Fields 452
Introduction 452
Substantia Nigra 453
Ventral Tegmental Area 459
Retrorubral Fields 460
Functional Connections 461
Conclusion 464
References 465
Chapter 14 - Brainstem Cholinergic Systems 469
Introduction 469
Cholinergic Neurons of the Brainstem Reticular Formation 470
Cytochemical Signatures 472
Axonal Targets 474
Postsynaptic Effects 478
Functional Affiliations 478
Summary and Conclusions 481
Anatomical Abbreviations 481
References 482
Chapter 15 - Cerebellum and Precerebellar Nuclei 484
Introduction 485
External Form and Subdivision of the Human Cerebellum 485
The Cerebellar Cortex 489
The Cerebellar Nuclei 497
The Cerebellar Peduncles 499
The Corticonuclear Projection 502
The Inferior Olive and the Olivocerebellar Projection 505
Zonal Organization of the Primate Cerebellar Cortex 515
Brainstem and Thalamo-Cortical Projections of the Cerebellar Nuclei Recurrent Cerebello-Olivary Loops 520
The Distribution of Mossy Fiber Systems 530
The Skeletomotor Cerebellum 537
The Oculomotor Cerebellum 538
Non-Motor Functions of the Cerebellum 541
Phylogenetic and Functional Subdivisions of the Cerebellum and their Somatotopical Organization 543
References 545
Section IV - Diencephalon, Basal Ganglia, Basal Forebrain And Amygdala 560
Chapter 16 - Hypothalamus 561
Cytoarchitecture of the Human Hypothalamus 562
Fiber Connections of the Hypothalamus 569
Functional Organization of the Hypothalamus 575
References 587
Chapter 17 - Hypophysis 597
Introduction 597
Anatomy of the Hypophysis 597
Imaging of the Hypophysis 599
Histology 600
Ultrastructure 603
References 605
Chapter 18 - Circumventricular Organs 607
General Characteristics of Circumventricular Organs 607
Subfornical Organ 608
Vascular Organ of the Lamina Terminalis (OVLT) 612
Median Eminence and Neurohypophysis 615
Pineal Gland 619
The Subcommissural Organ 621
Area Postrema 622
Choroid Plexus 624
References 625
Chapter 19 - Thalamus 631
Introduction 631
Superior Region 632
Medial Region 641
Lateral Region 647
Intralaminar Formation 662
Periventricular Formation 669
Posterior Region 673
Dedication and Acknowledgments 679
References 680
Chapter 20 - The Basal Ganglia 691
Introduction 691
Topography, Cytoarchitecture, and Basic Circuitry 692
Functional Basal Ganglia Connections 719
Functional Considerations 729
References 732
Chapter 21 - Sex Differences in the Forebrain 752
Introduction 753
Sex Hormone Receptors 753
Nucleus Basalis of Meynert (NBM) and Diagonal Band of Broca (DB) 754
Islands of Calleja (Insulae Terminalis) 755
Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN) 755
Sexually Dimorphic Nucleus of the Preoptic Area (SDN-POA) 756
Interstitial Nucleus of Anterior Hypothalamus INAH-3 and INAH-4, or Uncinate Nucleus 758
Anterior Commissure and Interthalamic Adhesion or Massa Intermedia 759
Bed Nucleus of the Stria Terminalis (BST) 759
Supraoptic and Paraventricular Nucleus (SON, PVN) 761
The Ventromedial Nucleus (VMH Nucleus of Cajal)764
Infundibular Nucleus (Arcuate Nucleus), Subventricular Nucleus, and Median Eminence 765
Tuberomamilary Nucleus (TMN) 766
Corpora Mamillaria 766
Conclusions 766
Abbreviations used in the Figures 766
References 767
Chapter 22 - Amygdala 772
Definition of the Amygdala and Overview of Terminology 772
Topography 774
Anatomical Divisions 778
Abbreviations (including Figures and Tables) 833
References 836
Section V - Cortex 848
Chapter 23 - Architecture of the Cerebral Cortex 849
Principal Subdivisions of the Cerebral Cortex 849
Quantitative Aspects of the Cerebral Cortex and Gender Differences 851
Asymmetries in the Cerebral Cortex 852
Paleocortex 855
Archicortex 857
Isocortex 861
Cortical Maps of the Human Brain: Past, Present, Future 891
References 893
Chapter 24 - Hippocampal Formation 909
Gross Anatomical Features 910
Cytoarchitectonic Organization of the Hippocampal Formation 917
Hippocampal Connectivity 929
A Note on the Development of the Human Hippocampal Formation 939
Clinical Anatomy 939
Functional Considerations 944
References 946
Chapter 25 - Cingulate Cortex 956
Overview 957
The Four-Region Neurobiological Model: Circuitry 957
Anterior Cingulate Cortex: Autonomic Regulation and Emotion 959
Midcingulate Cortex 961
Posterior Cingulate Cortex Dorsal and Ventral Subregions965
Retrosplenial Cortex Functions 966
Limbic Functions of Cingulate Subregions 967
Medial Surface Features 968
Flat Maps of Primate Medial Cortex 970
Cytology of Anterior Cingulate Cortex 971
Cytology of Midcingulate Cortex 974
Ectocallosal, Ectosplenial, and Retrosplenial Cortices 978
Posterior Cingulate Cortex 983
Caudomedial Subregion 984
The Cingulate Dysgranular Belt 985
Overview of Receptor Binding by Region and Layer 986
Some Comparative Features of Human and Monkey 988
Anterior Cingulate Cortex 989
Midcingulate Cortex 990
Retrosplenial Cortex 992
Posterior Cingulate Cortex 992
Is all Cortex in the Monkey Cingulate Sulcus Cingulate Cortex? 993
Perspectives on Human Imaging of Cingulate Cortex Structure and Functions 996
References 996
Chapter 26 - The Frontal Cortex 1001
Sulcal and Gyral Morphology of the Frontal Cortex 1002
Architectonic Organization 1006
Corticocortical Connection Patterns 1014
References 1023
Chapter 27 - Motor Cortex* 1025
Introduction 1025
Macaque Motor Cortex 1026
Human Motor Cortex 1035
Concluding Remarks 1042
References 1043
Chapter 28 - Posterior Parietal Cortex: Multimodal Association Cortex 1049
Macroanatomy of Posterior Parietal Cortex 1050
Architectonical Organization 1051
Functional Segregation 1058
Connectivity Pattern 1061
Conclusion 1065
References 1065
Section VI - Systems 1070
Chapter 29 - Lower Brainstem Regulation of Visceral, Cardiovascular, and Respiratory Function 1071
Introduction 1071
Classification of Brainstem Neuronal Groups 1072
Cardiovascular Function 1073
Respiratory Function 1077
Salivation, Swallowing and Gastrointestinal Function, Nausea, and Vomiting 1079
Lower Brainstem Regulation of Pituitary Vasopressin and ACTH Secretion 1081
Lower Brainstem Regulation of Pelvic Viscera 1081
Involvement of Putative Brainstem Autonomic and Respiratory Neurons in Human Neurodegenerative Disease 1082
References 1084
Chapter 30 - Somatosensory System 1087
Introduction 1088
Receptor Types and Afferent Pathways 1089
Relay Nuclei of the Medulla and Upper Spinal Cord 1097
Somatosensory Regions of the Midbrain 1098
Somatosensory Thalamus 1099
Anterior Parietal Cortex 1102
Somatosensory Cortex of the Lateral (Sylvian) Sulcus Including Insula 1108
Posterior Parietal Cortex 1110
Somatosensory Cortex of the Medial Wall: The Supplementary Sensory Area and Cingulate Cortex 1114
References 1114
Chapter 31 - Trigeminal Sensory System 1123
Introduction 1123
Receptors and their Innervation 1124
Trigeminal Nerves, Ganglion, and Root 1129
Brainstem Trigeminal Sensory Nuclei 1131
Pain Perception in the Trigeminal Pathway 1136
Thalamic Sites for Trigeminal Somatic Sensations 1141
Cranial Somatosensory Cortex 1143
Plasticity of Trigeminal Responses 1146
References 1147
Chapter 32 - Pain System 1157
Nociceptors 1158
Pain Transmission Neurons and Pathways 1168
Descending Pain Modulatory Systems 1177
Brain Structures Involved in Pain Perception and Integration 1179
Summary and Conclusions 1185
References 1187
Chapter 33 - Gustatory System 1200
Introduction 1200
Gustatory Apparatus and Peripheral Innervation 1201
The Central Nervous System 1202
Further Gustatory Processing 1223
Summary 1223
References 1224
Chapter 34 - The Olfactory System 1232
Introduction 1232
The Olfactory System 1233
Olfactory Mucosa 1234
The Vomeronasal Organ 1237
Olfactory Bulb 1237
Primary Olfactory Cortex 1238
Piriform Cortex 1239
Accessory Olfactory Cortical Areas 1242
Olfactory Projections Beyond the Primary Olfactory Cortex 1243
Human Imaging of Olfactory Sensory Activity 1245
References 1248
Chapter 35 - The Vestibular System 1252
Introduction 1252
Regional Anatomy of the Vestibular System 1253
Systems Anatomy 1269
References 1276
Chapter 36 - Auditory System 1283
Sensory Organ and Cochlear Nerve 1283
Brainstem 1286
Auditory Cortex 1295
Connectional Structure of the Auditory System 1302
Structural Asymmetry and Functional Lateralization 1306
The Concept of Wernicke’s Region 1307
References 1308
Chapter 37 - Visual System 1314
Central Visual Pathway 1315
Primary Visual Cortex 1322
Extrastriate Cortex 1326
References 1336
Chapter 38 - The Emotional Systems 1341
Emotions Defined, and an Anatomical Framework 1341
The Orbitofrontal Cortex 1343
The Amygdala 1356
The Pregenual Cingulate Cortex 1356
Beyond the Orbitofrontal Cortex to Choice Decision-Making 1357
References 1359
Chapter 39 - Cerebral Vascular System 1364
Introduction 1364
Anatomy of Cerebral Blood Vessels 1365
Anatomy of Spinal Cord Blood Vessels 1378
Vascular Innervation 1379
Mapping Cerebral Function with Blood Flow 1380
Global Responses of the Cerebral Circulation 1382
References 1383
Index 1388