Handbook of Water Purity and Quality (eBook)

Front Cover 1
Handbook of Water Purity and Quality 4
Copyright Page 5
Contents 6
Preface 14
Contributors 16
Chapter 1. Overview 18
Introduction 18
Water Pollution Worldwide 20
Monitoring Contaminants 23
What Is Potable Water? 24
Delineation of a Major Problem of Arsenic-Contaminated Groundwater 24
Water Quality in Eastern Africa 26
Effect of Land Development 27
Sampling and Analysis of Arsenic in Groundwater in Bangladesh and India 27
Forensic Water Quality Investigations 28
Regulatory Considerations 28
Microbial Analysis 29
Monitoring Inorganic Compounds 29
Radionuclides in Surface- and Groundwater 30
Volatile and Semivolatile Contaminants 30
Monitoring Disinfectants 30
Herbicides and Their Degradation Products 31
Pharmaceuticals in Sewage Effluents 31
Monitoring Terrorist-Related Contamination 32
Groundwater Arsenic-Removal Technologies Based on Sorbents 32
References 33
Chapter 2. Delineation of a Major Worldwide Problem of Arsenic-Contaminated Groundwater 34
Introduction 34
Investigations into the Problem 36
Toxicity of Various Arsenic Species 38
Impact of Arsenic-Laced Irrigation Water on the Food Chain 40
Mechanism of Arsenic Contamination of Water 41
Weathering of Arsenopyrite 41
Role of Microbes in the Release of Arsenic into Groundwater 42
Analytical Methods 44
Low-Cost Measurement Technologies for Arsenic 45
Test Kit Reliability 45
Arsenic-Free Water Supplies 48
Remediation of Arsenic-Contaminated Water 49
Reasons for Slow Progress 52
Viable Solutions 53
Conclusions 54
References 54
Chapter 3. Water Quality Issues in Eastern Africa 56
Introduction 56
Climate Change in Eastern Africa Affects Water Availability 56
Drastic Water Quality Changes in East Africa 59
Challenges Facing Lake Victoria 61
Human Waste Disposal: An Ignored Factor 62
Polychlorinated Biphenyls 67
Pesticide Residues in the Tropical Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 73
Short Rain Season 74
Dry Season 76
Heavy Rain Season 78
Conclusions 80
References 81
Chapter 4. Effect of Human Land Development on Water Quality 84
Introduction 84
Impacts of Land Clearing on Receiving Waters 85
Agriculture and Water Pollution 86
Human Health Pollutants from Agriculture 87
Ecosystem Pollution from Agriculture 88
Best Management Practices to Reduce Agricultural Runoff 91
Agriculture and Pesticides 91
Urbanization and Hydrological Impacts 92
Urban Pollution—On-Site Wastewater Treatment Issues 92
Septic Systems and Fecal Microbial Pollution 94
Septic Systems and Nutrient Pollution 95
Minimizing Problems from Septic Systems 96
Stormwater Runoff 96
Urban and Suburban Stormwater Runoff 96
Impacts of Urban Stormwater Runoff on Aquatic Ecosystems 97
Urban Stormwater Runoff and Human Health 98
Stormwater Runoff Solutions 102
Summary and Conclusions 106
References 107
Chapter 5. Sampling and Analysis of Arsenic in Groundwater in West Bengal, India, and Bangladesh 112
Introduction 112
Collection, Preservation of Water Samples, and Analytical Methods for the Determination of Total Arsenic 115
Quality Assurance and Quality Control Programs 119
Results and Discussion 120
Arsenic Contamination in Groundwater of West Bengal 120
Arsenic in Hand Tube Wells in All 64 Districts of Bangladesh 131
Source and Mechanism of Arsenic Contamination 139
Conclusions and Recommendations 139
Acknowledgments 143
References 143
Chapter 6. Forensic Water Quality Investigations: Identifying Pollution Sources and Polluters 148
Introduction 148
Quality Assurance/Quality Control 149
Basic Site Research 150
Sampling 152
Working with the Laboratory 152
Types of Evidence 152
Legal Tools to Obtain Evidence 155
Access and Entry 155
Witnesses 156
Documentary Evidence 157
Photography 158
Quantitative Reasoning 159
Presentation of Findings 160
Conclusions 161
References 161
Cases 162
Chapter 7. Regulatory Considerations to Ensure Clean and Safe Drinking Water 164
Introduction 164
EPA Strategic Goals for "Clean and Safe Water" 165
Drinking Water Regulations 166
History 166
The Rule-making Process 166
Clean Water Act 168
Safe Drinking Water Act 169
Contaminant Candidate List 169
Drinking Water Compliance Issues 169
Human Health Research 172
Toxicokinetics 172
Health Effects Data 173
Quantification of Toxicological Effects 173
Evaluation of Carcinogenic Potential 173
Risk Assessment 174
Drinking Water Research 175
Risk Management 176
Source Water Management 176
Treatment Technologies 178
Residuals Management 183
Distribution System Integrity 186
Water Quality Monitoring Systems 188
Monitoring Equipment 189
Homeland Security/Emergency Response 191
Research Priorities 192
Current Research Priorities 192
Future Research Priorities 193
Summary and Conclusions 193
Acknowledgments 193
References 193
Chapter 8. Microbiological Threats to Water Quality 198
Introduction 198
Quantification Methods 201
Microbial Contamination Indicators 202
Microbial Source Tracking 203
Sampling Issues 206
Conclusions 207
References 207
Chapter 9. Monitoring Inorganic Compounds 214
Overview 215
Techniques Used to Identify and Quantify Inorganic Constituents in Water 215
Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry 218
Gas Chromatography 220
High Performance Liquid Chromatography 221
Ion Chromatography 222
Inductively Coupled Plasma-Optical Emission Spectrometry 222
UV–Vis Absorption Spectroscopy 223
Methods to Identify Typical Inorganic Compounds in Water 224
Arsenic 224
Copper 224
Disinfection By-products 224
Fluoride 224
Iron 225
Lead 225
Manganese 225
Mercury 225
Nitrate 225
Sodium 226
Sulfate 226
Long-Term Monitoring Network for Atmospheric Deposition 226
Conclusions 228
References 228
Chapter 10. Radionuclides in Surface Water and Groundwater 230
Radioactive Compounds and Radioactivity 230
Radioactive Decay 231
Exposure to Radiation 232
Radionuclide Toxicity and Metabolism 236
Primary Radioactive Contaminants: Sources, Uses, and Disposal 236
Nuclear Reactors 237
Medical Applications 237
Mill Tailings 237
Radon Emissions from Soil Minerals and Groundwater 238
Radioactive Compounds in Water 239
Regulation of Radioactive Wastes and Water Standards 239
Analysis of Radioactive Compounds in Water 240
Examples of Radionuclide Contamination in Groundwater 243
Biogeochemical Processes Controlling Uranium Fate and Transport 244
Uranium(VI) Reduction 245
Uranium(IV) Oxidation 246
Remediation of Uranium Contamination 246
Remediation Technologies 246
Bioremediation 247
Biogeochemistry of Other Radionuclides 249
Conclusions 249
Acknowledgments 250
References 250
Chapter 11. Volatile and Semivolatile Contaminants 254
Introduction 254
Boiling Points of Some VOCs 254
Classification of Volatile Organic Compounds 255
Sources of Contamination of VOCs and Their Health Effects 255
Semivolatile Compounds 258
Monitoring VOCs and SOCs 263
Odors in Drinking Water 264
Analysis of VOCs 264
Analysis of SOCs 269
Remediation 273
Conclusions 273
References 274
Chapter 12. Monitoring Disinfectants 276
Introduction 276
Theory of Disinfection 277
Mechanisms of Disinfectants 278
Factors Influencing the Action of Disinfectants 279
Methods of Disinfection 281
Disinfection with Chlorine (Free and Combined) 281
Disinfection with Chlorine Dioxide 284
Disinfection with Ozone 285
Disinfection with UV Light 285
Monitoring Disinfectants 287
Disinfection By-products 287
Regulations Governing Disinfectants and Disinfection By-products Monitoring 287
Disinfectants/Disinfection By-products Rules 288
Sampling and Monitoring for D/DBPs 290
Analytical Methods 291
Using Ct Values for Monitoring Disinfectants 291
Disinfection By-products Control 295
Using Chlorine 298
Using Chloramines 300
Using Chlorine Dioxide 300
Using Ozone 301
Conclusions 302
Acknowledgments 303
References 303
Chapter 13. The Evolution of Analytical Technology and Its Impact on Water-Quality Studies for Selected Herbicides and Their Degradation Products in Water 306
Introduction 306
Herbicide Use 308
Commonly Used Herbicides 308
Perspective on Role of Analytical Methods Development 310
Mass Spectrometry 310
Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry 310
Liquid Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry 311
Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay 312
Water-Quality Studies 313
Surface Water 314
Groundwater 319
Precipitation 321
Conclusions 323
References 324
Chapter 14. Monitoring of Pharmaceutical Residues in Sewage Effluents 332
Introduction 332
Sampling 338
Sample Preparation 344
Instrumental Analysis 348
Analytical Quality Controls 352
Other Techniques 353
Summary and Conclusions 354
References 354
Chapter 15. Monitoring for Terrorist-Related Contamination 360
Introduction 360
What Is the Terrorist Threat to Water? 361
What Is a Backflow Attack? 362
Online Monitoring 363
What Should an Early Warning System Look Like? 363
What Should a Monitoring System Detect? 364
Water Analysis Presents Many Problems 365
Toxicity Monitoring 367
Problems with Toxicity Testing 374
Sensor Arrays and Lab-on-a-Chip Technologies 375
Bulk Parameter Monitoring 377
Other Online Technologies 381
UV Absorption and Fluorescence 382
Particle Counting and Characterization with Optical Methods 382
Gas Chromatography 383
Technologies Currently More Suited for Field Confirmatory Analysis 383
Immunoassays 384
Polymerase Chain Reaction Technology 384
Adenosine Triphosphate Detection 386
Rapid Tests for Cholinesterase-Inhibiting Substances (Nerve Agents and Pesticides) 386
Infrared Spectroscopy 387
Multiparameter Hand-held Devices 387
Surface-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy 388
Ion Mobility Spectroscopy 389
Surface Acoustic Wave Technology 390
Summary and Conclusions 390
References 392
Chapter 16. Groundwater Arsenic Removal Technologies Based on Sorbents: Field Applications and Sustainability 396
Introduction 397
Physicochemical Basis of Arsenic Removal 399
Speciation of Arsenic in Water 399
Surface-Complexation Reactions 400
Adsorption Isotherm Models for the Evaluation of Sorption Data 402
Kinetic Models for the Evaluation of the Sorption Data 402
Scaleup Approach: Fixed-Bed Column Design by the Kinetic Approach 405
Arsenic Removal Processes 405
Arsenic Removal Based on Iron 407
Arsenic Removal Technologies Tested in Bangladesh, Nepal, and India 413
READ-F Based on Hydrous Cerium Oxide on Polymer Sorbent 417
Alcan Filter Based on Enhanced Activated Alumina 417
SONO Filter Based on Composite Iron Matrix 417
Sidco Filter Based on Granular Ferric Hydroxide 418
Oxide India (P) Based on Activated Alumina 418
Arsenic Filters Tested in the United States 419
Sustainability and Management of Spent Material 419
Filter Evaluation Through Environmental Technology Verifications 423
Conclusions and Outlook 425
References 426
Index 436
A 436
B 437
C 438
D 439
E 440
F 440
G 441
H 442
I 442
J 443
K 443
L 443
M 444
N 444
O 445
P 446
Q 447
R 447
S 448
T 449
U 450
V 451
W 451
Y 452
Z 452