Global Perspectives on Childhood Obesity (eBook)

Front Cover 1
Global Perspectives on Childhood Obesity 4
Copyright 5
Table of Contents 6
Contributors 8
Preface 12
Dedication 14
Section IEpidemiology and Prevalence 16
Chapter1 Pediatric Obesity 18
Prevention 18
Screening 19
Identification 19
Assessment 20
Treatment 23
Advocacy 24
Conclusion 27
References 27
Chapter2 Salient Features on Child Obesity from the Viewpoint of a Nutritionist 28
Genetic and Family Aspects 28
Importance of Cognitive Restraint in Children 29
Obesity and Eating Disorders 31
Physical Activity 32
Strategies 32
Conclusion 33
References 33
Chapter3 Developmental Trajectories of Weight Status in Childhood and Adolescence 36
Developmental Trajectories of Weight Status in Childhood and Adolescence 36
Tracking of Weight Status in Childhood and Adolescence 36
Normative Growth Curve Methods 38
Non-Normative Growth Curve Methods 39
Conclusion 43
References 44
Chapter4 The Measurement and Epidemiology of Child Obesity 46
Introduction 46
BMI and Body Fatness 47
Classification Systems for High Levels of BMI and Body Fatness 50
Ability of a High bmi to Identify Children who have Excess Body Fatness 53
Conclusion 54
References 55
Chapter5 Good-Enough Parenting, Self-Regulation, and the Management of Weight-Related Problems 58
Introduction 58
Weight-Related Problems and Self-Regulation 59
Self-Regulation 60
Coping and Competence 62
Parenting, coping, and self-regulation 63
Effective Communication and Prosocial Coping 64
Parenting Style 65
Conclusion and Future Directions for Parent Practices 67
References 68
Chapter6 Nursing Perspective on Childhood Obesity 72
Introduction 72
Impact of Childhood Obesity 74
Nurse’s Identification of At-risk Children 75
Nurse’s Role in Prevention and Treatment Implementation 77
Treatment Options 78
Barriers to Successful Treatment 81
Conclusion 83
References 83
Chapter7 Contemporary Racial/Ethnic and Socioeconomic Patterns in U.S. Childhood Obesity 86
Introduction 86
Data and Methods 87
Results 91
Conclusion 96
References 99
Chapter8 Prediabetes among Obese Youth 102
Introduction 102
Definitions 102
Epidemiology of Diabetes and Prediabetes 103
Whom to Screen? 105
Progression of Prediabetes 105
Treatment of Prediabetes 106
Lifestyle 106
Pharmacotherapy in Prediabetes 106
Conclusion 107
References 107
Chapter9 Prediabetes and Type 2 Diabetes 110
Introduction 110
Global T2DM Prevalence Reports 110
Additional T2DM Reports from Centers And Unique Populations 111
Prediabetes Prevalence in Youth 111
Center-Based Studies and Unique Populations 112
Longitudinal Studies in Adults 113
Longitudinal Studies in Youth 113
American Diabetes Association (ADA) Guidelines for Screening 114
Risk Factors Identified for Pediatric T2DM 114
Presentation 116
Screening for T2DM in Primary Care 116
Complications of T2DM 116
Follow-Up for Youth With T2DM 116
Prevention 116
Conclusions and Suggested Approaches to Screening 117
Identified Risk Factors for T2DM 117
Which Tests to Use? 117
How Often to Test? 118
Conclusion 118
References 118
Chapter10 Prevalence of the Metabolic Syndrome in U.S. Youth 122
Introduction 122
Estimating The Population-Based Prevalence of Metabolic Syndrome in Children and Adolescents 123
Nhanes III Prevalence Estimates 123
Later Nhanes Prevalence Estimates 124
Other Regional-Based Sample Estimates 126
Ethnicity and The Prevalence of Metabolic Syndrome 127
Pathophysiology and Secular Trends 127
Future Projections 128
Conclusion 128
References 129
Section IIPathophysiology 132
Chapter11 Emerging Pathways to Child Obesity Starts from the Mother’s Womb 134
Introduction 134
Background on Factors of Child Obesity 134
Involvement of Genetics in Child Obesity 135
Factors Involved During Fetal Life (Nutritional) 135
Factors Involved During Fetal Life (Non-Nutritional) 136
Hidden Chemicals That Trigger Obesity During Pregnancy 137
Prevention of Child Obesity Before Birth 137
Change The Attitude, Change The Trend 138
Conclusion 139
References 139
Chapter 12 The Social, Cultural and Familial Contexts Contributing to Childhood Obesity 142
Introduction 142
Cultures and Childhood 142
Cultured Bodies in the Global Context 144
The Importance of Childhood and Class 145
Energy in and Energy Out: Food Consumption and Physical Activity 145
Culinary Cultures and Food Consumption Practices 145
The Culture of Physical Activities 146
National Sociocultural Trends Influencing Body Weight 147
Familial Contexts of Childhood Obesity 148
Running and Juggling: Time Pressure, Convenience, and Child-Centered Parenting 148
Conclusion: Intervening in Sociocultural and Familial Contexts of Childhood Obesity 150
References 151
Chapter 13 Cardiovascular Risk Clustering in Obese Children 154
Pathophysiology of the Insulin Resistance Syndrome in Childhood 154
Defining the Insulin Resistance Syndrome in Children 158
Clinical Relevance 158
Conclusion 158
References 159
Chapter 14 A Link between Maternal and Childhood Obesity 162
Background 162
Obesity and the Family 162
The Genetic Basis of Childhood Obesity 163
The Role of the Prenatal Environment 164
Maternal Obesity and the Family Environment 167
The Link Between Maternal and Child Obesity: Public Health Implications 168
References 169
Chapter 15 Is Prenatal Exposure to Maternal Obesity Linked to Child Mental Health? 172
Behavior Problems in Children 173
Concept of Prenatal Programming 174
Potential Mechanisms Linking Maternal Obesity and Child Behavior Problems 174
Confounding Factors 178
Conclusion 178
References 179
Chapter 16 Sleep and Obesity in Children and Adolescents 182
Introduction 182
Prevalence of Obesity and Short Sleep in Children and Adolescents 182
Epidemiological Evidence of a Link Between Sleep Loss and Obesity 184
Laboratory Evidence for a Link Between Sleep Loss and Obesity 187
Putative Mechanisms Linking Sleep Loss and The Risk of Weight Gain and Obesity 188
Sleep Disorders and Obesity in Children 192
Conclusion 193
References 194
Chapter 17 Cellular Remodeling during the Growth of the Adipose Tissue 198
Mature Adipocytes 198
Adipocyte Precursor Cells 199
Adipose Tissue-Derived Stromal Cells (ASCs) 199
At Microcirculation and at-Derived Endothelial Cells 199
Immune Cells 200
Conclusion 202
References 202
Chapter 18 Children Obesity, Glucose Tolerance, Ghrelin, and Prader-Willi Syndrome 206
Introduction 206
Clinical Features of PWS: Childhood-Onset Obesity, Body Composition, and Hyperphagia 206
Glucose Metabolism and Insulin Sensitivity 208
Ghrelin and Obestatin Regulation 209
Prader-Willi Syndrome (PWS), Glucose Metabolism, and Ghrelin System: What is the Link? 210
Conclusion 211
References 212
Chapter 19 Insulin Resistance and Glucose Metabolism in Childhood Obesity 216
Introduction 216
Insulin Resistance 216
Insulin and Normal Insulin Signaling 216
Effects of Insulin in Adipose Storage 217
Adipose Tissue and Insulin Resistance 217
Visceral Fat and Insulin Resistance 217
Pathophysiology of Insulin Resistance 218
Metabolic Syndrome in Childhood Obesity 218
Inflammation and Cardiovascular Risk in Obesity 218
Insulin Sensitivity and Nutrient Availability 220
Prevention 220
Conclusion 220
References 221
Chapter20 Insulin Resistance in Pediatric Obesity 224
Introduction 224
Fat Storage and Fat Metabolism: the Role of Insulin 224
Regulation of Entrance of Fatty Acids into Mitochondria 225
Measuring Insulin Function 226
Insulin Resistance and Weight Gain 226
Insulin Sensitivity in Obese Children 227
Why Insulin Sensitizing Increases Weight 227
Diet Studies on Children 228
Health Aspects of a Low-Carbohydrate Diet 229
The Insulin System in an Evolutionary Perspective 230
Amalgamation 231
References 232
Chapter 21 Role of Fatty Liver Disease in Childhood Obesity 236
Introduction 236
Pathogenesis 237
Diagnosis 238
Fatty Liver, Cardiovascular Disease, and type 2 Diabetes 239
Treatment 241
Conclusion 242
References 242
Section IIIPsychological and Behavioral Factors 246
Chapter 22 An Overview of Psychosocial Symptoms in Obese Children 248
Background 248
Bias and discrimination 248
Self-esteem 249
Depression 250
Body dissatisfaction 251
Disordered eating 251
Quality of life 252
Social functioning (peer relations and bullying-victimization) 253
Relationship between psychosocial symptoms 254
Not all children experience psychosocial symptoms: why? 255
Implications for intervention and prevention 256
References 257
Chapter 23 Childhood Obesity: Depression, Anxiety and Recommended Therapeutic Strategies 260
Introduction 260
Obesity and depression 260
Obesity and anxiety 261
Empirically supported treatments 263
Interventions for pediatric obesity 263
Enhanced treatment 267
Conclusion 268
References 269
Chapter 24 The Emotional Impact of Obesity on Children 272
Introduction 272
Obesity and psychological disorders 272
The psychological history of obesity 273
The metaphysical consequences for obese children 273
Teasing and bullying 274
Emotional consequences 274
Problems with school and social functioning 275
Suicidal behavior 276
Interventions 276
Conclusion 277
References 277
Chapter 25 Psychiatric Illness, Psychotropic Medication, and Childhood Obesity 280
Introduction 280
Pediatric Obesity 280
Prevalence of Psychiatric Illness in Childhood 280
Obesity Associated With Psychiatric Illness 281
Psychotropic Medication Utilization: Second-Generation Antipsychotics 281
Weight Gain on Antipsychotics 282
Mechanism 285
Treatments for Antipsychotic Associated Weight Gain 286
Future Directions in Research 287
Conclusion 288
References 288
Section IVConsequences 294
Chapter 26 Childhood Obesity 296
Incidence of Child Obesity: United States and Globally 296
Health Effects and Medical Treatment 297
Causal Factors 298
U.S. Solutions in Practice 299
Conclusion: Multiple-Front Approaches Needed 301
References 301
Chapter27 Childhood Obesity and Juvenile Diabetes 304
Introduction 304
Weight, Weight Gain, and Risk of Type 1 Diabetes 304
Weight Gain and Obesity in Children and Adolescents with Type 1 Diabetes 305
Overweight and Obesity and Complications of Type 1 Diabetes in Children and Adolescents 307
Conclusion 308
References 308
Chapter 28 Bone Health in Obesity and the Cross Talk between Fat and Bone 312
Introduction 312
Bone Mineral Density as a Surrogate Marker For Bone Strength 312
Relation of Bone Mass to Body Weight 313
Fat Mass or Lean Mass: what Influences Bone Mass? 313
Bone Mass in Obese Children 314
Bmd and Fracture Risk in Diabetes 314
Vitamin D 314
Bone and Energy Metabolism 314
Conclusion 315
References 316
Section VPrevention and Treatment 318
Chapter29 A Community-Level Perspective for Childhood Obesity Prevention 320
Introduction 320
Theory and Rationale 321
Community-Based Research: Design, Methods, and Analysis 322
Community Interventions: Progress and Promise 325
Future Directions 329
Summary 331
Conclusion 331
References 331
Chapter 30 School-Based Obesity-Prevention Programs 334
Introduction 334
The School as a Critical Setting for Obesity Prevention 334
Overview of School-Based Intervention Strategies 335
Theoretical Foundations to School-Based Obesity-Prevention Programs 336
Effectiveness of School-Based Obesity-Prevention Programs 337
Factors that may Influence the Effectiveness of School-Based Programs 339
International Perspectives on School-Based Obesity Prevention 340
Gaps in Research on School-Based Obesity-Prevention Interventions 340
Research Limitations of School-Based Obesity-Prevention Studies 341
Summary and Future Directions 341
Conclusion 344
References 344
Chapter 31 School-Based Obesity Prevention Interventions Show Promising Improvements in the Health and Academic Achievement ... 348
Introduction 348
Methods 349
Data Analyses 351
Results 352
Discussion 355
Conclusion 356
References 357
Chapter 32 School and Community-Based Physical Education and Healthy Active Living Programs 360
Introduction 360
Global Epidemic of Obesity 360
Epidemic of Childhood Obesity 361
Changes and Shifts in Diet and Physical Activity Patterns 361
An Integrated Approach of Physical Education, Physical Activity, and Wellness in School 362
Baptist (Sha Tin Wai) Lui Ming Choi Primary School (Hong Kong-China): A Holistic Approach 362
North Vista Primary School (Singapore): the Community of Learners at the School of the Future 365
Grundy Center (Iowa, United States) Community Schools/Polar Electro, Inc./University of Northern Iowa: a Partnership of ... 366
The Innovative Polar Scholars Program 367
Global Forum for Physical Education Pedagogy (2010) (GoFPEP 2010) 368
Conclusion 368
Authors' Note 369
References 369
Chapter33 Schools as ``Laboratories'' for Obesity Prevention 374
Introduction 374
Schools as ``Hubs'' of Obesity Prevention: A Multilevel, Multiagency Approach 374
Conclusion 381
References 384
Chapter34 Fitness and Fatness in Childhood Obesity 386
Introduction 386
Physical Activity, Physical Fitness, And Motor Competence InnbspObese Children 386
Physical Activity Guidelines fornbspObese Children 390
Conclusion 392
References 393
Chapter35 Pharmacotherapy in Childhood Obesity 398
Introduction 398
Orlistat 399
Sibutramine 399
Metformin 401
Conclusion 401
References 402
Chapter36 Beverage Interventions to Prevent Child Obesity 404
Introduction 404
Beverages for Obesity Interventions 404
Perspectives on Beverage Interventions for Obesity Prevention 410
Conclusion 412
References 412
Chapter 37 Psychotherapy as an Intervention for Child Obesity 416
Obesity: A Disease Put Into Perspective 416
Why Do We Need New Treatments? 416
Psychodynamic Therapy 417
Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies 417
Group Therapy 417
School-Based Treatments and Prevention 418
Early Treatment 418
Family Therapy 418
Systemic Family Medicine 419
Solution-Based Brief Therapy 419
Soft 420
The Processes in Therapy 420
A Case 422
The Questions are the Answers 423
Conclusion 424
References 424
Chapter 38 Childhood Obesity 426
Introduction 426
Psychological Correlates of Pediatric Obesity 426
Empirically Supported Treatments for Pediatric Obesity 427
Summary 429
Recommendations 430
Areas of Focus 430
Conclusion 430
References 430
Chapter39 Dietary Supplements in the Prevention and Treatment of Childhood Obesity 434
Introduction 434
Strategic Considerations 435
The Treatment Program for Childhood Obesity 437
Discussions 442
Conclusion 444
References 444
Chapter 40 The Role of Arginine for Treating Obese Youth 448
Introduction 448
The Growing Obesity Crisis Worldwide 448
Treatment of Obesity in Youth 449
Arginine Supplementation in Humans: Safety, Efficacy, and Pharmacokinetics 450
Role of Nitric Oxide (No) in Fat Metabolism 452
Dietary Arginine Supplementation Reduces Fat Mass in Adult Zucker Diabetic Fatty Rats 453
Dietary Arginine Supplementation Reduces Fat Mass in Diet-Induced Obese Rats 453
Arginine Increased in Vitro Lipolysis in Human Adipocytes 454
Conclusion 454
References 455
Chapter41 Prevention of Childhood Obesity with Use of Natural Products 458
Introduction 458
Importance of AMPK in Controlling Obesity and Metabolic Disorders 459
Structure and Expression of AMPK 460
Antiobesity Action of a Pharmacological AMPK Activator 460
Prevention of Obesity by AMPK Activators Found in Natural Products 461
Conclusion 463
References 464
Section VICommentary and Recommendations 468
Chapter42 The Role of United States Law to Prevent and Control Childhood Obesity 470
Introduction 470
Access to Healthy Food 470
Healthy Places 472
Zoning and the Built Environment 472
Schools 472
Nutrition 472
Physical Activity and Physical Education 473
Marketing in Schools 472
Conclusion 472
References 475
Chapter43 Childhood Obesity as an Amplifier of Societal Inequality in the United States 478
Introduction 478
Symbolic Capital and Obesity 479
Inequality, Ethnicity, and Obesity 481
Food and the Body as Two Types of Cultural Capital 483
The Impacts of Childhood Obesity on Society 485
Conclusion 485
References 486
Chapter44 Childhood Obesity, Food Choice and Market Influence 490
Introduction: The DGA and Then Some, or Small Fries and a Coke, Please 490
Obesity as a Problem 491
What Young People Eat: Sofaas, Not Fruit `N' Veg 491
Influences on Dietary Consumption 492
Mediating Effects on Food Choice 493
Recent Steps in the Right Direction 496
Conclusion 497
References 497
Chapter45 The Role of Media in Childhood Obesity 502
Children’s Media Use Patterns 502
The Relationship Between Children’s Heavy Media Use and Childhood Overweight 502
Mechanisms for Explaining The Association 503
Can Media be a Part of the Solution? 504
Recommendations 505
Is There a Role for Public Policy? 505
Conclusion 506
References 506
Chapter 46Evaluation and Management of Childhood Obesity in Primary Care Settings 510
Introduction 510
Current Physician Practices and Attitudes 510
Core Medical Evaluation 511
Evaluation for Other Problems 513
Weight-Management Counseling 513
Advantages and Limitations of 5As Approach 514
References 514
Chapter 47 The Future Directions and Clinical Management of Childhood Obesity 516
Introduction 516
Knowledge Gap 1: Etiology ofnbspChildhood Obesity 517
Knowledge Gap 2: Screening and Non-modifiable Risk Factors 521
Knowledge Gap 3: Lessons from Medical Models of Obesity 522
Knowledge Gap 4: Interventions 523
Conclusion 527
References 527
Index 530