First Principles of Meteorology and Air Pollution (eBook)

Contents 6
Chapter 1: Description of the Earth´s Atmosphere 12
1.1 Introduction to Atmospheric Structure and Composition 13
1.1.1 Emissions of Air Pollutants in the Atmosphere 13
1.1.2 The Earth´s Atmosphere 15
1.1.3 Origin and Evolution of the Atmosphere 18
1.2 Atmosphere´s Characteristics 21
1.3 Lower Atmosphere´s Composition 22
1.3.1 Dry Atmospheric Air 22
1.3.2 Water in the Atmosphere 22
1.3.3 Atmospheric Aerosols 24
1.4 Vertical Division of the Atmosphere - Temperature Change 25
1.4.1 Troposphere 25
1.4.1.1 Tropopause 27
1.4.2 Boundary Layer 27
1.4.2.1 Mixing Layer 29
1.4.2.2 Residual Layer 30
1.4.2.3 Nocturnal Boundary Layer 30
1.4.3 Stratosphere 31
1.4.3.1 Stratopause 31
1.4.4 Mesosphere 32
1.4.4.1 Mesopause 32
1.4.5 Thermosphere 32
1.4.6 Exosphere 32
1.4.7 Ionosphere - Magnetosphere 33
1.5 Change of Meteorological Parameters with Height 33
1.5.1 Temperature Inversion 36
1.5.2 Air Density Variation with Height 38
1.5.3 Change of Atmospheric Pressure with Height 39
1.6 Model of the Standard Atmosphere 40
1.6.1 Units of Chemical Components in the Atmosphere 41
1.6.2 Unit Conversion of Concentration of Component I (mug/m3) to Volume Concentration (Ppm) 42
1.7 Radiation in the Atmosphere 42
1.7.1 Laws of Radiation 44
1.7.1.1 Kirchhoff´s Law 45
1.7.1.2 Planck´s Law 46
1.7.1.3 Wien´s First Law 46
1.7.1.4 Wien´s Second Law 46
1.7.1.5 Law of Stefan-Boltzmann 46
1.7.2 Sun´s Radiation 47
1.7.3 Earth´s Radiation 47
1.7.4 Factors That Affect the Sun´s Radiation Flux to Earth 48
1.7.4.1 Geographical Factors 49
1.7.4.2 Geometrical Factors 49
1.7.4.3 Radiation Decrease 49
1.7.5 Interaction of the Sun´s Radiation in the Atmosphere 49
1.7.5.1 Absorption of the Sun´s Radiation 50
Oxygen (O2) 50
Ozone (O3) 51
Carbon dioxide (CO2) 52
Water Vapor (H2O) 52
1.7.5.2 Scattering of the Sun´s Radiation 53
Rayleigh Scattering 54
Mie Scattering 55
1.7.6 Greenhouse Effect 56
1.7.7 Energy Balance of Earth and its Atmosphere 58
1.7.8 Distribution of Sun´s Radiation at the System Atmosphere-Surface 60
1.7.9 The Earth´s Climate 61
1.7.9.1 Climate Change - Reasoning 63
1.8 Examples 65
1.9 Ambient Air Quality Standards 69
1.10•Appendixes 70
1.10.1•Appendix1: The Hydrostatic Equation 70
References 75
Chapter 2: First Principles of Meteorology 77
2.1 General Aspects of Meteorology 78
2.2 Vertical Structure of the Temperature and Conditions of Atmospheric Stability 80
2.2.1 Dry Vertical Temperature Lapse Rate 81
2.2.2 Wet Vertical Temperature Lapse Rate 84
2.2.3 Temperature Inversion 85
2.3 Atmospheric Variability - Air Masses - Fronts 87
2.3.1 Air Masses 87
2.3.2 Classification of Air Masses 88
2.3.3 Fronts 89
2.3.3.1 Polar Front 90
2.3.3.2 Cold Front 91
2.3.3.3 Warm Front 92
2.3.3.4 Stationary Fronts 94
2.3.3.5 Occluded Fronts 94
2.3.4 Wave Cyclone 95
2.4 Turbulence - Equations for the Mean Values 96
2.5 Statistical Properties of Turbulence 97
2.6 Atmospheric Temperature 102
2.6.1 Temperature Season Variability 102
2.6.2 Temperature Daily Variability 106
2.6.3 Heating of the Earth´s Surface and Heat Conduction 108
2.6.4 Distribution of Temperature in the Air 110
2.7 Humidity in the Atmosphere 111
2.7.1 Mathematical Expressions of Humidity in the Atmosphere 112
2.7.1.1 Absolute Humidity (B) 112
2.7.1.2 Specific Humidity (Q) 113
2.7.1.3 Mixing Ratio (R) 113
2.7.1.4 Relative Humidity (RH) 113
2.7.2 Dew Point 114
2.7.2.1 The Evaporation of Water at Cold Air 115
2.7.2.2 The Freezing of Humid Air 115
2.7.3 Clouds in the Atmosphere 116
2.7.4 Precipitation 117
2.7.5 Study of Precipitation Scavenging 119
2.8 Applications and Examples 122
References 127
Chapter 3: Atmospheric Circulation 129
3.1 Atmospheric Pressure and Pressure Gradient Systems 130
3.2 Atmospheric Pressure Changes 130
3.2.1 Vertical Pressure Changes 130
3.2.2 Non-canonical Pressure Changes 131
3.2.3 Canonical Pressures Changes 131
3.3 Transfer of the Pressure to Its Mean Value at Sea Level 132
3.4 Isobaric Curves: Pressure Gradient Systems 132
3.5 Pressure Gradient Force 134
3.6 Movement of Air: Wind 136
3.6.1 Forces Which Affect the Movement of Air 138
3.6.1.1 Coriolis Force 138
3.6.1.2 Friction Force 141
3.6.1.3 Centrifugal and Centripetal Forces 141
3.6.2 Transport Equations of Air Masses in the Atmosphere 141
3.6.3 Wind Categories 142
3.6.3.1 Geostrophic Wind 142
3.6.3.2 Pressure Gradient Wind 144
3.6.3.3 Friction Wind: Law of Buys-Ballot 145
3.6.3.4 Wind at the Surface Layer 146
3.7 General Circulation in the Atmosphere 147
3.7.1 Single and Three Cell Models 148
3.7.2 Continuous Winds 150
3.7.3 Periodic Winds 151
3.7.4 Sea and Land Breeze 151
3.7.5 Mountain and Valley Breezes 153
3.8 Vertical Structure of Pressure Gradient Systems 154
3.9 Equations of Atmospheric Circulation 155
3.9.1 Equations of Circulation for a Compressible Fluid 155
References 159
Chapter 4: Atmospheric Chemistry 160
4.1 Chemical Components in the Atmosphere 160
4.2 Chemistry of the Troposphere 161
4.2.1 Sulphur Components 164
4.2.2 Nitrogen Components 164
4.2.3 Carbon Components 165
4.2.4 Halogen Components 166
4.3 Particulate Matter 166
4.4 Photochemistry in the Free Troposphere 167
4.4.1 Photochemical Cycle of Ozone and Nitrogen Oxides 167
4.4.2 Chemistry of Carbon Dioxide 169
4.4.3 Chemistry of Hydrocarbons 170
4.4.4 Chemistry of Sulphur Compounds 170
4.5 Components of Aquatic Chemistry in the Atmosphere 171
4.6 Chemistry of the Stratosphere - Ozone 172
References 176
Chapter 5: Atmospheric Aerosols 177
5.1 Introduction 177
5.2 Size Distribution of Aerosols 179
5.3 Chemical Composition of Aerosols 188
5.4 Organic Aerosols 190
5.4.1 Elemental Carbon- Primary Organic Carbon 192
5.4.2 Secondary Organic Matter Formation (Secondary Organic Carbon) 193
5.5 Dynamics of Atmospheric Particulate Matter 194
5.5.1 New Particle Formation 194
5.5.1.1 Nucleation Theory - Kinetic Method 194
5.5.1.2 Calculation of the Nucleation Rate 198
5.5.1.3 Heterogeneous Nucleation 200
5.5.2 Condensation and Evaporation 201
5.5.3 Coagulation 204
5.6 Bioaerosols - Definition 205
References 206
Chapter 6: Atmospheric Dispersion: Gaussian Models 208
6.1 Theories of Atmospheric Diffusion 209
6.2 Euler Description 209
6.3 Lagrange Description 210
6.4 Equations Describing the Concentration of Pollutants at Turbulent Conditions 211
6.4.1 Diffusion Equation in Euler Description 211
6.4.2 Diffusion Equation in Lagrange Description 212
6.4.3 Solution of the Diffusion Equation for a Continuous Source with the Euler Methodology 214
6.5 Gaussian Model 214
6.5.1 Limitations of the Gaussian Model 215
6.5.1.1 Conditions of Intense Instability 215
6.5.1.2 Emissions Close to the Surface 216
6.5.2 Calculation of the sigmay and sigmaz Coefficients. Stability Methodology 216
6.5.3 Plume Rise 219
6.5.3.1 Plume Rise due to Initial Momentum Under Neutral or Unstable Stability Conditions in the Atmosphere 222
6.5.3.2 Thermal Rise Under Neutral or Unstable Stability Conditions in the Atmosphere 222
6.5.3.3 Stable Conditions 222
6.5.3.4 Plume Rise due to Momentum Under Stable Conditions 222
6.5.3.5 Thermal Rise Under Stable Atmospheric Conditions 223
6.5.4 Atmospheric Stability - Application to the Gaussian Models 223
6.6 Analytical Solutions of the Atmospheric Diffusion Equation 224
6.7 Two-Dimensional, Time Independent Line-Continuous Source with Changing Values of Velocity and Diffusion Coefficient 227
6.8 Characteristics of Plume Dispersion - Stability Conditions 230
6.9 Examples and Applications 233
6.10•Appendix6.1The Continuity Equation 237
References 239
Chapter 7: Atmospheric Models: Emissions of Pollutants 240
7.1 Introduction 240
7.2 Dispersion Equations for Pollutant Transport at the Euler and Lagrange Coordinating Systems 242
7.2.1 Model of a Single Volume in the Euler System 243
7.2.2 Three Dimensional Models of Atmospheric Pollution 244
7.3 Statistical Evaluation of Atmospheric Models 245
7.4 Emissions of Atmospheric Pollutants 246
7.5 Emissions from the Biosphere 247
7.5.1 Emissions of Volatile Organic Compoundsfrom Vegetation 250
7.5.2 Calculation of Biogenic Emissions 250
7.5.3 Sea Salt Emissions 252
7.5.4 Emissions of Air Pollutants from the Earth´s Surface 253
7.5.5 Emissions of Pollutants from Forest Fires 254
7.6 Examples and Applications 256
References 260
Chapter 8: Indoor Air Pollution 261
8.1 Introduction to Indoor Air Quality 262
8.2 Ozone 268
8.3 Nitrogen Oxides 271
8.4 Volatile Organic Compounds 273
8.5 Chemistry of Organic Compounds Indoors 274
8.6 Radon 281
8.6.1 Radiactive Decay of Radon Isotopes 283
8.6.2 Exposure and Dose of Radon in Indoor Environment 285
8.6.3 Examples 288
8.7 Carbon Monoxide 289
8.8 Asbestos 290
8.9 Heavy Metals 291
8.10 Formaldehyde 293
8.11 Pesticides 296
8.12 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH) 297
8.13 Polychloric Biphenyls (Pcbs) 297
8.14 Tobacco Smoke 299
8.15 Bioaerosols 300
8.16 Microenvironmental Models 302
8.17 Air Exchange Rate by Infiltration 305
8.18 Emission Models 306
8.19 Deposition Models 307
8.19.1 Examples 307
References 309
Chapter 9: Human Exposure and Health Risk from Air Pollutants 311
9.1 Human Exposure and Doses from Air Pollutants 312
9.2 Exposure Pathways 315
9.2.1 Dermal Absorption 315
9.2.2 Inhalation Exposure 316
9.3 Calculation of Dose-Response Functions 321
9.3.1 Dose Calculation Through Intake 321
9.3.2 Internal Dose Calculation Through Dermal Absorption 322
9.3.3 Internal Dose Calculation Through Inhalation and Food Intake 324
9.3.4 Functions of Dose-Response 325
9.4 Particulate Matter Dose Through Inhalation 328
9.4.1 Deposition of Particles in the Respiratory Tract 328
9.4.2 Classification of Particles Based on Their Ability to Penetrate the Respiratory Tract 334
9.4.3 Calculation of Particle Deposition in the Respiratory Tract 337
9.4.4 Particle Clearance in the Human Respiratory Tract 339
9.4.4.1 Upper Respiratory Tract (ET1 and ET2 Regions) 340
9.4.4.2 Tracheobrobcial Region (Bb and Bb Regions) 340
9.4.4.3 Alveolar-Interstitial Region (Al Region) 340
9.4.5 Particle Deposition Measurements 344
9.5 Application: Internal Dose from Radon Inhalation 347
9.6 Health Effects from Air Pollutants 352
9.7 Health Effects from Exposure to Particulate Matter 356
References 360
Appendix A 361
Units and Physical Constants 361
Conversion Units of Energy 362
Fundamental Physical Constants 362
Conversion Factors for Light Absorption Coefficients 362
Factors of Units Conversion for Reactions in the Gaseous Phase 363
Index 364