Biomaterials (eBook)

Foreword 6
Preface 8
Contents 14
Chapter 1:The Perfect Human Machine 18
1.1 Biomaterials: Philosophical Background 18
1.2 Staying Alive Despite the Second Law 21
1.3 Scaling of Plants and Animals 21
1.4 Definitions 29
Chapter 2:The Failing Human Machine 36
2.1 A Total Hip Replacement 36
2.2 Strength and Response to Load 42
2.2.1 Stainless Steel 44
2.2.2 Cobalt–Chrome alloys 47
2.2.3 Titanium Alloys 49
2.3 Skeletal Tissue 54
2.3.1 Cartilage 55
2.4 Total Hip Replacement Register 62
2.5 Homage to a Pioneer: Sir John Charnley 66
Chapter 3:Corrosion 68
3.1 It Should not Have Happened 68
3.2 Water Does not Flow Uphill 70
3.2.1 Electrochemical Series 72
3.2.2 Pourbaix Diagram 73
3.2.3 Corrosion Rate 75
3.2.3.1 Anodic and Cathodic Currents 77
3.2.4 Styles in Corrosion 79
3.3 Does It All Fit the Practice of Implants? 85
3.4 A Conclusion 86
Chapter 4:Intoxicated by Implants? 88
4.1 Trace and Essential Trace Elements 89
4.2 Toxicity 90
4.2.1 Complex Formation 91
4.2.2 Metallothionein 92
4.2.3 Multiple Interactions 93
4.3 Immunotoxicology 96
4.4 Gulliver and the Lilliputians 98
4.5 Sensitivity to Metal Implants 102
4.5.1 Stainless Steels 103
4.5.2 Cobalt–Chromium Alloys 105
4.5.3 Titanium Alloys 108
4.6 Wear Debris 111
4.7 And the Answer Is? 112
4.8 Postscriptum 113
Chapter 5:Zirconium and Other Newcomers 115
5.1 Excellent But Just not Enough? 115
5.2 Zirconium, a Newcomer? 117
5.3 Tantalum and Niobium 125
5.4 Alloys with a Future? 134
5.5 Postscript 136
Chapter 6:Long Bones 137
6.1 Plaster of Paris 137
6.2 Corollary Between Mineral and Biological Evolution: An Excursion in the Dark Ages 138
6.3 Thermoplastic Polymers 141
6.4 External Fixators 141
6.5 Exploring the Future 145
6.6 Osteosynthesis 149
6.7 G.A. Ilizarov 151
Chapter 7:Layer by Layer 153
7.1 Computer-Aided Design 153
7.2 Electron Beam Melting 155
7.3 Selective Laser Melting of Metal Powder 158
7.4 Stereolithography of Polymers 160
7.5 Characterization of Porous Structures 163
7.6 Conclusion 164
Chapter 8:Metal Implants Bound to Disappear 166
8.1 Soluble Metals? 167
8.2 Prospecting for the Best 171
8.3 Hope? 172
8.4 Mg Foams 175
8.5 In Vitro and In Vivo 176
8.6 Conclusion 177
Chapter 9:A 7,000 Year Old Story: Ceramics 179
9.1 Greek Pottery, a Useful Intermezzo? 179
9.2 Ceramics, Impossible to Define? 181
9.3 Ceramics 182
9.3.1 High Performance 182
9.3.2 Low Performance 196
9.4 Glass and Glass–Ceramics 196
9.4.1 Bioactive Glasses 197
9.4.2 Glass–Ceramics 199
9.5 Coatings 200
9.6 General Conclusion 202
Chapter 10:Dental Materials 205
10.1 Difficulties to ``Bridge' 206
10.2 Amalgam 207
10.3 Composite Alternatives 210
10.3.1 Adhesives 213
10.3.2 Restorative Composites 217
10.4 Orthodontics 219
10.5 Implants 225
10.6 Ceramics 225
10.7 Calcium Phosphates 227
10.8 Postscript 231
Chapter 11:The Perfect Prosthesis? 233
11.1 The Isoelastic Prosthesis 233
11.2 Polymers for Implants 235
11.3 Why Is a Polymer Like PMMA Transparent to Visible Light? 243
11.4 Polyethyleneterephtalate 244
11.5 Polyamide 245
11.6 Was the Isoelastic Concept a Good Idea? 245
11.7 Heraclitus, 2500 Years Old and Still Alive 247
11.8 We Shall Overcome…Do We? 249
11.9 Thermoplastic Elastomers 252
11.9.1 Polyurethane 252
11.9.2 Thermoplastic Polyolefins 252
11.10 Conclusion 256
Chapter 12:Heart Valve Substitutes 257
12.1 Introduction: Valve Explants 257
12.2 The Natural Heart Valves 258
12.2.1 The Aortic Valve 259
12.2.2 Aortic Valve Substitutes 261
12.3 Soft Tissue Biomechanics 268
12.4 Blood-Material Interactions 269
12.5 Anticoagulants 276
12.6 Blood Flow Through the Heart Valves 278
12.7 Epilogue-Future 280
Chapter 13:Tissue Engineering: Regenerative Medicine 283
13.1 It Has Been Described Before! 283
13.2 Basic Scheme of Tissue Engineering 284
13.3 Scaffolds 286
13.3.1 Materials 286
13.3.2 Porosity and Architecture 287
13.3.3 Scaffold Surface Chemistry and Topography 288
13.3.4 Mechanical Properties 289
13.3.5 Degradation Kinetics 290
13.3.6 Fabrication Techniques 291
13.4 Biomolecules and Cells 293
13.4.1 Biomolecules 293
13.4.2 Cells 294
13.5 Tissue Engineered Heart Valves 295
13.6 Vascular Grafts 296
13.6.1 Synthetic Vascular Grafts 297
13.6.2 Stents 299
13.6.3 Tissue Engineered Blood Vessels 301
Chapter 14:Water 304
14.1 Origin of Life 305
14.2 The Water Molecule 306
14.3 Conclusion 312
Chapter 15:Closing Dinner Speech 313
Appendix:A Physical Data 315
Appendix:B Crystallographic Structures 319
B.1 Crystal Systems 319
B.1.1 Unit Cells 319
B.1.2 Slip Planes 321
B.1.3 Dislocations 321
B.1.4 Diffusionless or Displacive Transformation 322
B.2 Ceramics 322
Appendix C:Electrochemical Series 324
C.1 Equilibrium Electrochemical Series 324
C.2 Pitting Potentials and Re-passivating Time 327
Appendix D:Simulated Body Fluids 328
References 330
Index 344