Handbook of Gender Research in Psychology (eBook)

Joan C. Chrisler is Class of 1943 Professor of Psychology at Connecticut College. She has published extensively on gender roles, attitudes toward menstruation and menopause, women's health and embodiment, and other topics. She has edited seven previous books, most recently Lectures on the Psychology of Women (4th ed., 2008, McGraw-Hill) and Women over 50: Psychological Perspectives (2007, Springer). She has served as Editor of Sex Roles and on the Editorial Boards of Psychology of Women Quarterly, Sex Roles, and Teaching of Psychology. Dr. Chrisler is a Fellow of the Association for Psychological Science and the American Psychological Association (Divisions 1, 2, 9, 35, 38, 46, 52). Donald R. McCreary is an Adjunct Professor of Psychology at Brock University and York University.  He has published extensively on gender roles, the psychology of men, and other topics.  He has co-edited one previous book, Applied Social Psychology (1997, Prentice Hall).  He has served as Associate Editor of Psychology of Men and Masculinity and of the International Journal of Men's Health, and is a member of the Editorial Boards of Sex Roles, Journal of Men's Studies, and Body Image. Dr. McCreary is a Fellow of the American Psychological Association (Division 51).

Contents 6
Contributors 10
About the Editors 14
About the Contributors 16
1 Introduction 28
The Development of Gender Studies in Psychology 28
Methodological Issues 30
Purpose and Goals of this Handbook 31
Handbook Overview 32
Volume I: Gender Research in General and Experimental Psychology 33
History of Psychology 33
Research Methods 33
Brain and Behavior 34
Learning, Education, and Cognitive Processes 34
Communication 35
Emotion and Motivation 35
Lifespan Development 35
Volume II: Gender Research in Social and Applied Psychology 36
Personality Psychology 36
Abnormal and Clinical Psychology 36
Psychotherapy 37
Social Psychology 37
Industrial--Organizational Psychology 38
Health Psychology 38
Special Topics in Applied Psychology 39
Observations and Gaps 39
Conclusion 42
References 42
Part VIII Personality Psychology 44
2 Gender and Personality 45
Social Influences on Gender Differences in Personality 46
Masculinity and Femininity in Personality Theory 47
History of the Masculinity and Femininity Constructs 47
Instrumentality and Expressiveness as Mediators of Gender Differences 49
Expressiveness, Instrumentality, and Mental Health 50
Understanding Gender Differences Through the Five-Factor Model 51
Gender Differences in FFM Traits 52
Evaluation of FFM Research and Directions for Future Study of Gender Issues 54
Gender Differences in Self-evaluations 56
Global Self-esteem 56
Multi-dimensional Self-concept 57
Directions for Future Research 59
Social and Situational Contexts 59
Promising Directions for Studying Wellness and Transcendence 60
Sense of Coherence 61
Conclusions 62
References 62
3 Gender and Motivation for Achievement, AffiliationIntimacy, and Power 67
Reemergence of Interest in Social Motives 68
Best Practices for Measuring Social Motives in Women and Men 69
Distinction Between Implicit and Explicit Measures 70
Achievement Motivation 71
Motive to Avoid Success 73
Relationship of Implicit Measures to Explicit Measures of n Achievement 74
AffiliationIntimacy Motivation 75
Affiliation--Intimacy and Relationships 76
Physiological Correlates of Affiliation--Intimacy 77
Power Motivation 78
Profligacy and Responsibility Training 79
Physiological Correlates of Power 80
Social Contextual Factors and Social Motives 81
Some Advice and Promising Areas for Future Research 83
Summary and Conclusion 84
References 84
4 Gender Issues in Psychological Testing of Personality and Abilities 89
Psychological Assessment and Psychological Testing 89
Context and the Assessment Experience 90
Assumptions in Psychological Testing 91
Psychometric Theory 92
Universal Humans or Cultural Beings? 92
Personality: Traits or Processes? 93
Gender and Norms 94
Gender Neutral 94
Gender Based 95
Gender Irrelevant 95
The Current Practice of Psychological Testing 96
Types of Tests 96
Test Functions 97
Tests of Achievement 97
Tests for Selection 97
Diagnosis and Intervention 98
Gender Bias and Tests of Personality and Psychopathology 99
Biased Theories 99
Biased Operationalization 100
Biased Test Construction 100
Differential Item Endorsement Probability 101
Different Item Meaning: Reference Groups 101
Gendered Correlates of Item Bias 102
Gender and Social Appropriateness of Items 103
Bias in Structural Issues and Statistical Assumptions 103
Construction of Personality Tests 104
Empirical Tests 104
MMPI and MMPI-2 104
16PF 106
Theoretically Developed Tests 106
Item Response Theory (IRT) 107
Conclusion and Future Directions 109
References 109
Part IX Abnormal and Clinical Psychology 115
5 Gender Stereotypes in Diagnostic Criteria 116
Fundamental Assumptions Concerning Gender Bias in Diagnosis 117
Diagnostic Categories Replete with Gender Stereotypes 118
Personality Disorders 118
Mood Disorders 121
Anxiety Disorders 124
Some Issues That Cut Across Diagnostic Categories 126
Poverty 126
Violence and Abuse 127
Race and Racial Discrimination 127
Stereotypes Concerning Sexual Orientation and Identity 128
Gender-Role Factors in Seeking Treatment 129
Future Directions 129
References 130
6 Gender Identity Disorder: Concerns and Controversies 135
History and Diagnostic Criteria 135
Estimated Prevalence 137
Etiology 139
Biological Explanations 139
Psychosocial Explanations 140
Psychodynamic Explanations 142
Treatment 142
Transgender Health Concerns 144
Current Controversies 145
Does GID Qualify as a Mental Disorder? 145
The Insurance Debate 147
Recommendations to Ensure Insurance Coverage for SRS 148
Recommendations for Reform 148
Future Directions 149
References 150
7 Gender, Sexual Orientation, and Vulnerability to Depression 156
Epidemiology 156
Comparisons of Women and Men 157
Developmental Trends 157
First Onsets Versus Duration of Depression 157
Symptom Differences and Treatment Seeking 158
Comparisons of Sexual Minorities and Heterosexuals 158
Developmental Trends 159
Summary 159
Explanations of Group Differences in Depression 159
Stress Explanations 159
Stress and Women's Greater Vulnerability to Depression 160
Victimization 160
Chronic Strain of Gender Role 160
Stress and Sexual Minorities' Greater Vulnerability to Depression 160
Victimization 161
Discrimination 161
Hate Crimes 162
Interpersonal Factors 162
Interpersonal Factors and Women's Greater Vulnerability to Depression 162
Social Support and Interpersonal Stress 162
Rejection Sensitivity 163
Interpersonal Factors and Sexual Minorities' Vulnerability to Depression 163
Social Support 163
Rejection Sensitivity 163
Cognitive Factors 164
Cognitive Factors and Women's Vulnerability to Depression 164
Rumination 164
Other Cognitive Factors 165
Cognitive Factors and Sexual Minorities' Vulnerability to Depression 165
Hopelessness 165
Rumination 165
A Stress-Mediation Model of Vulnerability to Depression 166
Cognitive Mechanisms 167
Interpersonal Mechanisms 168
Conclusion and Future Directions 168
References 170
8 Gender and Body Image 175
What Is Body Image? 175
Gender and Body Perceptions 176
Fragmented vs. Functional 176
Third Person vs. First Person 176
Overestimate vs. Underestimate 177
Gender and Body Feelings 177
Body Dissatisfaction 177
Body Shame 178
Appearance Anxiety 179
Gender and Body Cognitions 180
Body Schematicity 180
Body-Ideal Internalization 181
Gender and Body Behaviors 183
Eating Disorders 184
Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD) 184
Anabolic Steroid Use 184
Cosmetic Surgery 185
Avoidance 186
Theoretical Explanations 186
Tripartite Model of Social Influence 186
Parents 186
Peers 187
Media 188
Gender Socialization 190
Objectification Theory 192
Future Directions 194
Conclusions 196
References 196
Part X Psychotherapy 207
9 Feminist Psychotherapies: Theory, Research, and Practice 208
Psychological Distress: Diagnosis, Assessment, and Sociocultural Influences 213
Gender and Sexism in Psychotherapy 213
The Effects of Other ''Isms'' 214
Traumatic Experiences 216
The Meaning of Feminist Therapy 217
Perceptions of Feminist Therapy/Therapists 217
Praxis What Do Feminist Therapists Do? 219
General Practices 219
Qualitative Research 219
Quantitative Research 221
Specific Issues in the Therapeutic Relationship 223
Nature of the Relationship 223
Self-disclosure 224
Termination 225
Men as Feminist Therapists 225
Outcome and Evaluation Research 226
Immigrant and International Women 227
Hmong Women Living in the United States 227
Women in Bosnia--Herzegovina 228
Adult Survivors of Childhood Sexual Abuse 229
Men Who Abuse Their Partners 231
Summary 231
Directions for Future Research 232
Differentiation Between Feminist Therapists 232
Second and Third Waves 232
Men as Feminist Therapists 232
Additional Comparisons Between Feminist and Non-feminist Practices 233
General Practices 233
Particular Phases and Processes of Therapy 233
Clients' Perceptions and Experiences of Feminist Therapy 233
Experience of Diverse Groups 234
Efficacy, Evaluation, and Outcome Research 234
Theoretical Considerations 234
Current and Future Practice 235
References 236
10 Psychotherapy with Men 241
The Case of David: Finding Strength in Being Vulnerable 242
Knowledge About Working with Male Clients 243
A Rationale for Masculine-Sensitive Psychotherapy 243
Understanding the Cultures of Masculinity 245
Seeking Psychological Help 248
Presenting Concerns 249
Psychotherapists Attitudes Toward and Beliefs About Working with Men 250
Negative Biases Against Male Clients 251
Applying the Multicultural Considerations Paradigm to Psychotherapy with Men 251
A Strength-Based Perspective 252
Skills for Working with Men in Psychotherapy 253
Engaging Men in Psychotherapy 254
Recognize, Acknowledge, and Affirm Gently the Difficulty That Men Have in Entering and Being in Psychotherapy 254
Help the Client Save ''Masculine Face'' 254
Educate Male Clients Up Front About the Process of Therapy 255
Set Goals That Match the Needs of the Male Client 255
Be Patient 255
Use a Therapy Language and Approach That Is Congruent with Clients' Gender-Role Identity 256
Be Genuine and Real 256
Addressing and Assessing Masculine Socialization in Psychotherapy 256
Revisiting the Case of David 259
Future Directions for Research on Psychotherapy with Men 261
Helping Men to Seek Psychological Help 261
Retaining Men in Psychotherapy 262
Effective Treatments and Improving Therapy Outcome 262
Concluding Thoughts on Psychotherapy with Men 263
References 263
11 Gender Issues in Family Therapy and Couples Counseling 272
The Authors Social Locations 273
Historical Overview of the Feminist Revision of Family Therapy (19702000) 273
Working with Men from a Feminist Perspective 275
Queering the Discussion 276
Tensions Between Race/Ethnicity and Gender/Feminism in Family Therapy 279
An Intersectionalities Framework 280
The Continuing Problem of White, Heterosexual Privilege 281
Contemporary Trends in Couples and Family Therapy 283
Evidence-Based Treatment in Couples Therapy 283
Empirical Research on Couples Interaction: Physiology, Socialization, or Power? 284
Problems with First-Order Change 285
Cultural Competence and EBT 287
The Social Justice Perspective 288
Conclusion and Future Directions 290
References 292
Part XI Social Psychology 297
12 Gender, Peer Relations, and Intimate Romantic Relationships 298
Gender and Peer Relations 298
Same-Sex Friendships 298
Cross-Sex Friendships 300
Gender and Intimate Romantic Relationships 301
Phase I: Coming Together 301
Mate Preferences 301
Mate Preferences: Evolutionary Theory 302
Mate Preferences: Socio-ecological Theories 304
Relationship Initiation and Dating 305
Sociocultural Contexts: Dating Scripts 306
Social and Dyadic Contexts: Role of Peers and Romantic Partners 308
Relationship Initiation in Gay Men and Lesbians 309
Relationship Initiation Across Cultures 309
Phase II: Relational Maintenance 310
Commitment 311
Intimacy 311
Self-disclosure 311
Responsiveness 312
Relationship Satisfaction 313
Phase III: Coming Apart 313
Costs of Gender-Role Traditionalism for Intimate Romantic Relationships 315
Relational Costs 315
Sexual Costs 316
Summary and Future Directions 317
References 318
13 Gender, Aggression, and Prosocial Behavior 328
Aggression 328
Defining Aggression 328
Stereotypes of Gender and Aggression 329
Controlled Laboratory Studies 331
Expressions of Aggression in Everyday Life 332
Personal Experiences of Violence in Everyday Life 332
Gender and Criminal Behavior 333
Intimate Partner Violence and Aggression 333
Violence and Aggression Toward Children and Elderly Family Members 334
Sibling Violence 335
Aggression in Children: Peer Violence 336
Rape 338
Workplace Violence 339
Summary of Gender and Aggression Research 339
Prosocial Behavior 340
Empathy, Nurturance, and Sensitivity to Nonverbal Cues 341
Helping Others 342
Personal Disclosure 343
Compassionate Love 344
Future Directions 345
Interactions Between Aggression and Prosocial Behavior 345
Moving Outside the Laboratory and Considering Social Context 346
Lack of Social Context in the Laboratory 346
Effects of Using Psychology Student Samples 347
Gender, Aggression, and Prosocial Behavior in Other Cultures 347
References 347
14 Gender and Group Behavior 353
Gender Effects on Group Behavior 353
Communal and Social Behavior 353
Social Influence 355
Emergent Leadership 357
Men's Resistance to Women's Influence and Leadership 358
Gender Stereotypes and Gender Effects on Group Behavior 359
Gender Stereotypes About Agency and the Double Standard 359
Gender Stereotypes About Communion and the Double Bind 361
Gender Effects on Group Performance 363
Same-Gender Groups 363
Mixed-Gender Groups 364
Future Directions and Conclusion 367
References 368
15 Sexual and Gender Prejudice 375
Sexual Prejudice Against Gay and Lesbian Individuals 375
Homophobia and Its Discontents 375
Sex and Gender 376
Religion 377
In-Group Domination 378
Internalized Homophobia 378
Summary 378
Sexual Prejudice Against Bisexual Individuals 379
Sources of Prejudice: Sex, Gender, and Sexual Orientation 379
Further Sources of Prejudice 380
Internalized Biphobia 381
Summary 381
Gender Prejudice Against Transgender Individuals 382
Contextual Origins 382
Prevalence of Gender Prejudice 383
Consequences of Gender Prejudice 384
Summary 385
Positive Attitudes Toward Sexual Minorities 385
Future Research Directions 386
References 388
Part XII Industrial-Organizational Psychology 393
16 Gender and Occupational Choice 394
Explanations 397
Barriers and Supports 398
Gender Stereotypes 398
Parents 398
Peers 399
Teachers 400
Media 400
Ability 400
Perceived Abilities and Motivations 402
Summary and Directions for Future Research 404
Future Directions 407
The Changing World of Work 407
Contextualization 407
Longitudinal Designs 408
References 409
17 Gender and the Division of Labor 416
Links Between Work and Family 416
The Cultural Template of Men at Work and Women at Home 417
History and Importance of Household Labor 417
Theories of Household Labor 419
Exchange/Resource Theories 419
Time Availability/Constraints 419
Relative Resources and Economic Dependency 420
Critiques of Exchange and Resource Perspectives 420
Gender Theories 421
Socialization and Attitudes Toward Gender Roles 421
Gender Construction 421
Methods of Studying Household Labor 422
Predictors of Household Labor: Empirical Findings 423
Women's and Men's Employment 423
Earnings 424
Education 425
Age and the Life Course 425
Attitudes Toward Gender Roles 425
Marital Status and Union Type 426
Lesbian and Gay Couples and Families 426
Race and Ethnicity 427
Outcomes of Household Labor 428
Marital Happiness, Marital Satisfaction, and Marital Quality 428
An Emerging Focus on Fairness Evaluations 428
Psychological Adjustment 429
Work--Family and Family--Work Spillover 430
Concluding Comments and Future Directions 430
References 432
18 The Gendered Nature of Workplace Mistreatment 438
Conceptual Space of Workplace Mistreatment 438
Chapter Overview 440
Gendered Frameworks of the Antecedents of Workplace Mistreatment 440
Sexual Harassment 440
Incivility 441
Buss' Framework of Aggression 442
Contextual Influences on Mistreatment 443
Gendered Profiles of Targets and Perpetrators 444
Incivility 444
Bullying 444
Sexual Harassment 445
Workplace Aggression/Violence 446
Reactions to Workplace Mistreatment 447
Appraisal Processes 447
Coping Processes 448
Escalating Aggression 450
The Impact of Workplace Mistreatment: Is It the Same for Women and Men? 450
Psychological and Physical Consequences 451
Work-Related Consequences 451
Conclusion and Directions for Future Research 452
References 452
19 Gender and Leadership: Negotiating the Labyrinth 457
Representation of Women in Leader Roles 457
WorkFamily Issues 459
Discrimination and Prejudice 460
Gender and Leader Stereotypes 461
The Effects of Incompatible Leader and the Gender Roles 464
Organizational Barriers to Womens Leadership 465
Demands for Long Hours and Relocation 466
Masculine Organizational Culture 467
Barriers to Building Social Capital 468
Challenges of Obtaining Desirable Assignments 469
Leadership Effectiveness 469
Organizational Effectiveness of Gender-Integrated Executive Teams 470
Effectiveness of Individual Male and Female Leaders 471
Leadership Style and Leaders' Effectiveness 472
Mapping Future Research Directions 475
References 476
Part XIII Health Psychology 483
20 Gender, Health, and Health Behaviors 484
Life Expectancy 484
Health Behaviors 485
Health Service Use and Health-Related Symptoms 487
Gendered Patterns of Risk 488
Why Do Individual Health Behaviors Differ by Gender? 489
Other Social and Demographic Categories 491
Socioeconomic Context 492
Gender Convergence 493
Gender and Socioeconomic Status in Developing and Emerging Countries 493
High-Risk Activities 495
Future Directions 498
Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender (LGBT) Health Issues 499
Indigenous, Migrant, and Bicultural Individuals 499
References 500
21 Gender, Stress, and Coping 507
Gender Differences in Stress and Coping 507
Models of Stress and Coping 507
Gender Differences in Stress and Coping: Considered in Context 509
Coping with Interpersonal Stress 510
Coping with Chronic Illness 512
Coping with Work-Related Stress 514
Gender Differences in Social Support 516
Structural and Functional Aspects of Support 517
Perceived vs. Received Social Support 518
Social Support Networks 519
Stress, Coping, and Gender in Diverse Populations 521
What Can We Conclude About Stress and Coping in Women and Men? 522
Future Directions for Research on Gender, Stress, and Coping 523
References 524
22 Gender and Health-Care Utilization 528
Health-Care Access and Utilization 528
Ambulatory Care 530
Medications 530
Hospital Admissions and Procedures 531
Gender Stereotypes and PhysicianPatient Communication 532
Gender Stereotypes 532
Reporting Style 533
Health Beliefs and Physician--Patient Communication 533
Alzheimers Disease and Long-Term Care 534
Long-Term Care 535
Cancer 536
Breast Cancer 537
Prostate Cancer 538
Lung Cancer 539
Colorectal Cancer 540
Diabetes 541
Health Effects 541
Diabetes and Utilization of Care 542
Interventions and Programs 542
Sexual and Reproductive Health 543
HIV/AIDS 544
References 546
Future Directions 545
23 Gender Issues in the Diagnosis and Treatment of Chronic Illness 552
Disease Knowledge, Screening, and Diagnosis 554
Disease Knowledge 554
Screening Practices 555
Early Disease Diagnosis 556
Reaction to Diagnosis 556
Adjustment to Chronic Illness 557
Gender Differences in Adjustment to Chronic Illness 558
Gender Differences in Psychological Adjustment 558
Agency and Communion 560
Dyadic Coping and the Interpersonal Context 561
Directions for Future Research 563
Sexual Minority Status 563
Cultural and Religious Implications 564
Conclusion 565
References 566
Part XIV Special Topics in Applied Psychology 572
24 Gender in Sport and Exercise Psychology 573
Framework for Gender in Sport and Exercise Psychology 574
SocialHistorical Context of Sport and Physical Activity 574
Early Women's Sport and Physical Education 575
From the 1970s to Today's Gendered Sport 575
Gender and Physical Activity/Exercise Participation 577
Gender Scholarship in Sport and Exercise Psychology 578
Gender Differences and Gender Roles 579
Gender Roles and Gender Conflict 580
Gender Stereotypes 580
Gender Bias in the Media 581
Gender and Self-perceptions in Sport 583
Gender, Expectations, and Participation 583
Physical Activity, Gender, and Body Image 584
Body Image and Sport Participation 584
Body Image, Sport, and Eating Disorders 584
Body Image and Physical Activity 585
Body Image and Muscularity 585
Physical Activity and Adolescent Development 586
Gender and Sexuality in Sport and Physical Activity 587
Homophobia and Professional Sport 587
Sexual Prejudice in Non-professional Sport and Physical Activity 588
Sexual Harassment in Sport and Exercise 589
Advancing Gender Research and Social Action in Sport and Exercise Psychology 589
References 590
25 Ethical and Methodological Considerations for Gender Researchers in Forensic Psychology 596
Defining Gender 597
Methodological and Epistemological Pluralism in Gender Research 597
The Goals of This Chapter and a Final Disclaimer 597
General Considerations in Research in Forensic Contexts 598
Standards for Forensic Research Relative to Research in Other Contexts 598
Forensic Versus Therapeutic Roles 599
Ethical Issues in Forensic Research 600
Confidentiality and Anonymity 600
Harm 603
Informed Consent 605
Disclosure of Potential Conflict of Interest 606
Interstate Research 607
Methodological Issues in Forensic Research 608
Sampling 608
Measurement 610
Response Bias 611
Fairness and Bias in Measurement 613
Reliance on Simulation Research 615
Reliance on Self-report 616
Archival Data 616
Conclusion and Directions for Future Research 617
References 618
26 The Treatment of Gender in Community Psychology Research 622
The Field of Community Psychology 622
Conceptualization of Gender 624
Method 625
Observations 627
Gender as a Grouping Variable 627
Gender as a Descriptive Variable 627
Gender as a Demographic Variable 629
Gender as a Risk or Protective Factor 629
Gender as an Influence on Other Variables in a Theoretical Relationship 630
Gender as an Individual-Level Difference Variable Within an Ecological Framework 631
Gender as an Intersecting Variable 631
Gender as a Process Variable 632
Gender as a Contextual Variable 634
Individual Gender-Related Attitudes as Context 634
Relationships as Context 635
Cultural Narratives About Gender as Context 636
A Look at Gender Treatment Over Time 637
Reflections and Future Directions 638
Redefining Dualisms 640
Conceptualizing Gender Systemically 641
Critical Consciousness as Essential to Quality Research 642
Conclusion 644
References 645
27 Gender and Media: Content, Uses, and Impact 651
Media Content: Quantity and Quality of Gender Representation 652
Gender and Media Use: Video Games, Internet, Sexual Material, and Film Genres 658
Video Games 658
New Media 660
Sexually Explicit Content 662
Film Genres 664
Key Areas of Impact: Aggression, Self/Sexual Objectification, and Stereotypes 665
Aggression 665
Self/Sexual Objectification 666
Stereotyping: Media Threats and Solutions 668
Conclusion and Future Directions 670
References 671
28 Gender and Military Psychology 678
Gender and Military Careers: Segregation and Progression 678
Gender and Occupational Segregation 679
Gender, Combat, and the ''Warrior Ethic'' 681
Gender Differences in Occupational Stratification 683
Career Progression of Ethnic or Visible Minorities in the Military 684
Gender, Career Progression, and Leadership 684
Gender and Harassment in the Military 686
Harassment Experiences of Military Personnel 687
Conclusions from the Harassment Surveys 691
WorkFamily Issues in the Military 693
Balancing Work and Family in the Military Context 694
Work--Family Policies in the Militaries of Various Countries 695
Gay Men and Lesbians in the Military 696
Cross-National Comparisons of Policies Concerning Lesbians and Gay Men in the Military 697
Integrative Summary, Conclusions, and Future Research Directions 698
References 699
Author Index 704
Subject Index 784