Human Exposure to Pollutants via Dermal Absorption and Inhalation (eBook)

Preface 6
Contributors 9
Trond Bøhler 9
Martin Braniš 9
Ian Colbeck 9
Christos Housiadas 9
Contents 8
Chapter 1 11
Environmental Levels 11
1.1 Introduction 11
1.2 Primary Emissions of Air Pollutants 14
1.3 Ambient Air Quality Standards 17
1.4 Ambient Air Pollution Concentrations Over Europe 17
1.4.1 Ambient Levels of Gaseous Pollutants 17
1.4.2 Ambient Levels of Particulate Matter 23
1.5 Composition of PM10 29
1.6 Indoor Air Pollution 32
1.7 Drinking Water Quality 33
1.7.1 Standards 33
1.7.2 Disinfection By-products 37
1.7.3 THM Concentrations 40
References 46
Chapter 2 50
Indoor Air Pollution 50
2.1 Introduction 50
2.2 Indoor-Outdoor Measurements in Oslo 53
2.3 Particle Emission Rates 56
2.4 Bioaerosols 58
2.4.1 Indoor Concentrations 58
2.4.2 Size Distribution 61
2.5 Indoor Air Quality in Developing Countries 62
2.6 Transport Micro-environments 68
2.7 Summary 71
References 73
Chapter 3 82
Chemical Reactions Among Indoor Pollutants 82
3.1 Introduction 82
3.2 Indoor Air Quality Models That Incorporate Chemistry 83
3.3 Ozone and Related Chemistry 84
3.3.1 Homogeneous Chemistry 84
3.3.1.1 Indoor Smog Chemistry 84
3.3.1.2 Ozone and Organic Compounds 85
3.3.1.3 Hydroxyl Radical Chemistry 89
3.3.1.4 Nitrate Chemistry 89
3.4 Heterogeneous Ozone Chemistry 90
3.4.1 Ozone and Carpet 91
3.4.2 Latex Paint 92
3.4.3 HVAC Materials 92
3.4.4 Surface Aging and Regeneration by Soiling 92
3.5 Auto-oxidation, Hydrolysis, Acid-Base, and Chlorine Chemistry 95
3.5.1 Auto-oxidation 95
3.5.2 Hydrolysis 96
3.5.3 Acid-Base Chemistry 98
3.5.4 Chlorine Chemistry 99
3.6 Control of Indoor Chemistry and Control in Indoor Air Quality Using Chemistry 99
3.6.1 Control of Ozone Chemistry 99
3.6.2 Misguided Chemistry for Controlling Indoor Air Quality 100
3.7 Summary 101
References 101
Chapter 4 106
Personal Exposure Measurements 106
4.1 Introduction 106
4.2 Concepts and Definitions of Personal Exposure 108
4.2.1 Basic Risk Model 108
4.2.2 Exposure 109
4.3 Direct Approach 112
4.3.1 Selection of a Sample Population 112
4.3.2 Personal Samplers 113
4.3.2.1 Personal Monitoring of Particulate Matter 115
4.3.2.2 Personal Monitors for Gases and Vapours 121
4.3.2.3 Future Trends in Personal Exposure Measurements 127
4.4 Indirect Approach 128
4.4.1 Fixed-Site Monitoring Approach 129
4.4.2 Microenvironmental Approach 130
4.4.2.1 Human Activity Information 132
4.4.3 Biomonitoring 138
4.4.3.1 Biomarkers 138
4.5 Conclusions 142
References 143
Chapter 5 151
Health Effects of Air Pollutants 151
5.1 Introduction 151
5.2 Epidemiological Evidence and Mechanisms of Toxicity 152
5.3 Outdoor Air Pollutants 155
5.3.1 Inorganic Gases 155
5.3.1.1 Sulphur Dioxide 155
Mechanisms of Action 155
Short-term Effects 156
Long-Term Effects 157
5.3.1.2 Nitrogen Dioxide 157
Mechanisms of Action and Chamber Studies 157
Short-Term Effects 158
Long-Term Effects 159
5.3.1.3 Ozone 159
Mechanisms of Action and Chamber Studies 160
Short-Term Effects 160
Long-Term Effects 161
5.3.1.4 Carbon Monoxide 161
Mechanisms of Action 162
Short-Term Effects 162
Long-Term Effects 163
5.3.2 Particles 163
5.3.2.1 Mechanism of Action 164
5.3.2.2 Short-Term Effects 164
5.3.2.3 Long-Term Effects 166
5.3.2.4 Health Effects of Ultrafine Particles 167
5.3.2.5 Lead 167
5.3.3 Organic Gases 168
5.3.3.1 Benzene 168
Mechanisms of Action 168
Carcinogenicity 169
Other Health Effects 169
5.3.3.2 1,3-Butadiene 170
Mechanisms of Action 170
Carcinogenicity 170
Other Health Effects 170
5.3.3.3 Formaldehyde 171
Mechanisms of Action 171
Carcinogenicity 171
Other Health Effects 172
5.3.3.4 Benzo[a]pyrene 172
Mechanisms of Action 172
Carcinogenicity 172
Other Health Effects 173
5.3.4 Biological Contaminants 173
5.3.4.1 Pollen 173
5.3.4.2 Fungi 174
5.3.4.3 Bacteria 174
5.3.4.4 Algae 175
5.4 Indoor Air Pollutants 175
5.5 Indoor Air Pollution in Developing Countries 177
5.6 Multi-pollutant Mixtures 179
5.7 Health-Based Air Quality Guidelines and Regulations 179
5.8 Risk Analysis and Health Impact Assessment 181
5.9 Discussion and Conclusions 183
References 184
Chapter 6 193
Inhalation Dosimetry Modelling 193
6.1 Introduction 193
6.2 Physicochemical Properties of Aerosols 195
6.3 The Respiratory System 198
6.4 Deposition and Clearance Mechanisms 204
6.4.1 Deposition of Particles in the Human Respiratory Tract 204
6.4.2 Particle Clearance in the Human Respiratory Tract 209
6.5 Particle Deposition Measurements 215
6.6 Computational Methods 221
6.6.1 Classification of Models 221
6.6.2 Empirical Compartmental Modeling: The ICRP Model 223
6.7 Whole-RT 1D Mechanistic Modeling 228
6.7.1 Lagrangian Modelling 228
6.7.2 Eulerian Modelling 230
6.7.3 Stochastic Lung Modelling 231
6.7.4 Aerosol Dynamics Effects 231
6.8 CFD-Based Mechanistic Modeling 232
6.8.1 Airflow Within the Respiratory Tract 233
6.8.1.1 Airway Ventilation 233
6.8.1.2 Velocity Field 234
6.8.1.3 Mixing of Fresh and Resident Air 234
6.8.1.4 Particle Deposition in the Respiratory Tract –Extrathoracic models 235
References 237
Chapter 7 245
Dermal Absorption Modelling 245
7.1 Introduction 245
7.2 The Dermal Absorption Barrier 246
7.2.1 General Structure of Skin 246
7.2.2 Other “Barriers” to Absorption 247
7.3 Animal Models 248
7.4 Experimental Approaches 249
7.4.1 In Vivo Approaches 249
7.4.2 In Vitro Approaches 250
7.5 Mathematical Modeling Considerations 251
7.5.1 QSAR Approach 253
7.5.2 Mixture Exposure 254
7.6 Conclusion 255
References 256
Chapter 8 258
Micro-environmental Modelling 258
8.1 Introduction 258
8.2 Simple Indoor Air Models 259
8.2.1 Indoor-Outdoor Air Exchange Process: Ventilation Rate 260
8.2.2 Penetration Process 261
8.2.3 Deposition Process on Indoor Surfaces 262
8.3 Multiple-Component Indoor Air Models: Sectional Indoor Air Models 265
8.3.1 Interpretation of Particle Size-Sections in a SIAM 266
8.4 Multiple-Compartment and Multiple-Component Indoor Air Models: General Formulation 267
8.4.1 Aerosol Dynamic Scheme UHMA 267
8.4.1.1 Coagulation 268
8.4.1.2 Condensation of Vapours 268
8.4.2 Indoor-Outdoor Air Exchange and the Penetration Process 269
8.4.3 Internal Air Exchange Between Indoor Compartments 269
8.4.4 Deposition and Re-suspension Processes 270
8.5 Mathematical Solutions and Applications of Indoor Air Models 271
8.5.1 Analytical Solution for a Simple Indoor Air Model 271
8.5.1.1 Steady-State Conditions 272
8.5.1.2 The Infiltration Factor, INF 274
8.5.2 Estimation of the Controlling Parameters with a SIAM 275
8.5.3 Numerical Simulations 276
8.5.4 Indoor Sources and Emission Rate Estimation 278
8.5.4.1 Semi-empirical Estimation of the Emission Rate 278
References 279
Chapter 9 285
Air Quality Management and Personal Exposure 285
9.1 Introduction 285
9.2 Air Quality Management and Assessment 286
9.3 Management Systems 287
9.3.1 Design of Air Quality Monitoring Networks 287
9.3.2 Emission Inventories 289
9.3.2.1 Point Sources 289
9.3.2.2 Line Sources 290
9.3.2.3 Area Sources 291
9.3.3 Meteorological Models 291
9.3.3.1 Meteorological Measurements 291
9.3.3.2 Wind Field Modelling 292
9.3.4 Atmospheric Dispersion Models 292
9.3.5 Population Exposure 293
9.3.5.1 Grid Square Exposure 293
9.3.5.2 Sub Grid Exposure 294
9.3.5.3 Personal Exposure 294
9.4 Urban Exposure Management Tool 294
9.4.1 Introduction 294
9.4.2 Particulate Matter 294
9.4.3 Multi Pathway Gas Uptake 295
9.4.4 The Tool for Calculating Personal Exposure 296
9.4.4.1 Personal Characteristics and Daily Routine 296
9.4.4.2 Indoor Sources 297
9.4.4.3 Features 298
9.4.4.4 Multi Pathway Gas Uptake 298
9.5 Case Studies 298
9.5.1 Oslo Case Study Results 299
9.5.1.1 Case 1: Travelling Alternatives 301
9.5.2 Cases 2 and 3 305
9.6 Summary of Case Studies 307
Index 310