Handbook of Gender Research in Psychology (eBook)

Joan C. Chrisler is Class of 1943 Professor of Psychology at Connecticut College. She has published extensively on gender roles, attitudes toward menstruation and menopause, women's health and embodiment, and other topics. She has edited seven previous books, most recently Lectures on the Psychology of Women (4th ed., 2008, McGraw-Hill) and Women over 50: Psychological Perspectives (2007, Springer). She has served as Editor of Sex Roles and on the Editorial Boards of Psychology of Women Quarterly, Sex Roles, and Teaching of Psychology. Dr. Chrisler is a Fellow of the Association for Psychological Science and the American Psychological Association (Divisions 1, 2, 9, 35, 38, 46, 52). Donald R. McCreary is an Adjunct Professor of Psychology at Brock University and York University.  He has published extensively on gender roles, the psychology of men, and other topics.  He has co-edited one previous book, Applied Social Psychology (1997, Prentice Hall).  He has served as Associate Editor of Psychology of Men and Masculinity and of the International Journal of Men's Health, and is a member of the Editorial Boards of Sex Roles, Journal of Men's Studies, and Body Image. Dr. McCreary is a Fellow of the American Psychological Association (Division 51).

Contents 6
Contributors 10
About the Editors 14
About the Contributors 16
1 Introduction 28
The Development of Gender Studies in Psychology 28
Methodological Issues 30
Purpose and Goals of this Handbook 31
Handbook Overview 32
Volume I: Gender Research in General and Experimental Psychology 33
History of Psychology 33
Research Methods 33
Brain and Behavior 34
Learning, Education, and Cognitive Processes 34
Communication 35
Emotion and Motivation 35
Lifespan Development 35
Volume II: Gender Research in Social and Applied Psychology 36
Personality Psychology 36
Abnormal and Clinical Psychology 36
Psychotherapy 37
Social Psychology 37
Industrial--Organizational Psychology 38
Health Psychology 38
Special Topics in Applied Psychology 39
Observations and Gaps 39
Conclusion 42
References 42
Part I History of Psychology 44
2 Emergence and Development of the Psychology of Women 45
Psychology and/of Women: The First Wave 47
Psychology and/of Women at Mid-century 49
The Feminist Revolution in Psychology 52
Emergence of a Psychology for Women 52
Emergence of Feminist Practice 55
Epistemological Debates and Methodological Developments of the 1980s and 1990s 56
Feminist Empiricism 57
Feminist Standpoint Epistemologies 58
Feminist Postmodernism 58
Feminist Methods 59
Building a Multicultural Psychology of Women 60
Multicultural Psychology, Feminist Psychology, and Social Activism 61
Persistent Dilemmas and Future Directions 61
References 62
3 Emergence and Development of the Psychology of Men and Masculinity 68
Historical Overview 68
Publications 69
Organizations 70
Conferences 71
Journals 72
Paradigms for Psychological Study of Men and Masculinity 73
Essentialist, Biological, and Evolutionary Paradigms 73
Gender Role Identity Paradigms 74
Gender Role Strain Paradigms 75
Beyond Essence, Identity, and Strain 76
Trends in Research on the Psychology of Men and Masculinity 76
Measurement of Masculinity 77
Men and Physical Health 78
Men and Mental Health 79
Conclusions and Recommendations 79
References 80
4 Emergence and Development of the Psychological Study of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Issues 84
Terminology: Definitions and Discussion 84
Chapter Organization 85
First-Generation Literature: Pathologizing Homosexuality 86
Second-Generation Literature: The Psychological Adjustment Research 87
Third-Generation Literature: Identity, Diversity, and Descriptive Research 88
Gender Differences 88
Race, Ethnicity, and Culture 89
Bisexuality 90
Relationships, Families, and Parenting 91
Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Youths 92
Sexual Prejudice and Heterosexism 93
Comments, Current Trends, and Future Directions 94
What Does It Take? A Brief History 94
Gender/Transgender Issues 95
Sexual Orientation 97
From Categories to Complexity: The Fourth Generation 97
References 98
Part II Research Methods 104
5 Quantitative Approaches to the Study of Gender 105
The Scientific Study of Gender 105
Validity Issues 107
Experimental Approaches to the Study of Gender 107
Nonexperimental Research 109
Longitudinal Designs and Statistical Control 110
Meta-analysis 112
Content Analysis 113
Research Approaches in Contemporary Gender Research 114
Relevant Theories 114
Gender and Power-Related Behaviors 114
Objectification Theory 115
Gender and Sexual Violence 115
Experiments 115
Nonexperimental Quantitative Methods 117
Longitudinal Studies 118
Meta-analysis 120
Content Analysis 121
Summary 121
Conclusion 122
References 122
6 Qualitative Inquiry in Gender Studies 126
What Are Qualitative Methods? 127
Central Characteristics of Qualitative Methods 127
Characteristics of Qualitative Inquiry in Gender Research that Have Challenged the Mainstream 127
Situated Knowledge 128
Value-Basis of Research 128
Researcher/Researched/Reader Relationship 129
Representation: Inclusivity and Its Limits 131
Reflexivity 132
Diverse Approaches to Qualitative Methods 132
Empiricist Perspective 133
Constructionist Perspective 133
Grounded Theory Approach to Doing Qualitative Research 134
Major Methods in the Qualitative Study of Gender 134
Case Study 134
Interviews 135
Focus Groups 136
Ethnography 137
Narrative Research 139
Contemporary Forms of Qualitative Inquiry 140
Discourse Analysis 140
Conversation Analysis 141
Developing Forms of Qualitative Inquiry 141
Action Research 141
Performance-Based Research 142
Future Directions in the Qualitative Study of Gender 144
Challenges for Qualitative Methods Within Gender Studies 144
Gender/Women/Feminism/ and Qualitative Methods 144
Divergent Paths for Qualitative Methods Within Gender Studies 145
References 146
7 Measuring Gender: Options and Issues 155
Measuring Gender: Options and Issues 155
Classes of Measures 156
Measures of Support for and Adherence to Cultural Gender Norms 156
Trait Measures 156
Ideology Measures 158
Gendered Behavior Measures 161
Gender Socialization 165
Measures of Gender Role Conflict and Gender Role Stress 166
Measures Related to the Relative Position of Men and Women in Society 168
Future Directions 171
Definitions of Gender, Masculinity, and Femininity 172
Psychometric and Methodological Concerns 172
Scale Age 173
Moving Forward 173
References 174
8 Cross-Cultural Research Methods and the Study of Gender 180
Describing Social Groups 181
Describing Cultural Elements 182
Psychological Universals 182
Three Psychological Approaches to the Study of Culture 183
Advantages of Cross-Cultural Research 184
Types of Cross-Cultural Research Designs 185
Sources of Cross-Cultural Data 188
Nature of Measurement Issues 190
Issues with Translation 191
Conclusion 194
References 194
9 Gender Diverse Recruitment to Research Projects 199
Types of Recruitment 200
Population-Based Recruitment 200
Purposive Recruitment 201
Convenience Sampling 201
How to Choose a Recruitment Strategy 201
A Model of Recruitment 202
Preparatory Stage 202
Contact Stage 203
Enrollment Stage 203
What Has Research Yielded for Diverse Recruitment? 204
Research Examples 204
Studies of Psychological Phenomena: The Psychology Department Subject Pool 204
Diversity in a Large Clinical Trial: The Women's Health Initiative 205
Specific Strategies for Enhancing Diversity in Recruitment 205
Recruitment Strategies for Sexual Minority Women: Insuring Diversity 206
Conclusions 208
References 208
10 Interpreting and Communicating the Results of Gender-Related Research 211
Warning May Contain Spoilers 211
What Are Gender-Related Findings? 212
Should We Describe Gender-Related Findings? 213
Sex or Gender? 213
How Important Is Language to Thinking? 215
Category Norms, Explanation, and Generalization 216
Should We Undo the Effects of Category Norms? 217
Scientific Metaphors and Analogies 219
Future Directions 223
References 224
Part III Brain and Behavior 232
11 The Physiology of Sex Differences 233
Classification and Synthesis of Steroid Hormones 233
Development of Sex: The Fetus 234
Sex Differences in Behavior in Childhood 237
Sex Differences After Puberty: Adulthood 238
Role of Nonreproductive Hormones: Glucocorticoids 244
Conclusions and Future Directions 245
References 245
12 Sex and Gender in Sensation and Perception 252
Vision 252
Somatosensation 257
Audition and Vestibular Perception 260
The Chemical Senses 263
Conclusion and Future Directions 266
References 267
13 On Tending to Our Scientific Knitting: Thinking About Genderin the Context of Evolution 275
What Sex Differences in Spatial Cognition? 278
The Classic Literature 279
Object Location Memory 279
Navigation 280
Summary 281
Two Kinds of Evolutionary Explanations 281
Evaluating Man the Hunter, Woman the Gatherer 282
Evaluating the Man Who Gets Around 284
Overarching Issues 285
Would an Advantageous Trait with No Obvious Cost Be Sex-Specific? 285
How Does Hormonal Variation Fit EP Hypotheses? 286
Is Causation of Sex Differences the Right Question? 287
Conclusion: Prospects for an Empirically Rigorous Evolutionary Psychology 287
References 288
Part IV Learning, Education, and Cognitive Processes 291
14 Gender in the Classroom 292
The Gendered Structure of Education 292
The Gendered Classroom 294
Competing Explanations for Gender Differences in Educational Attainment 301
Future Directions 305
References 306
15 Gender and Academic Abilities and Preferences 311
Methodologies Used to Study Gender Similarities and Differences 311
Common Statistics Used in Gender Difference Research 312
The Complexity of Questions Concerning Gender and Academic Abilities and Preferences 314
Gender and Academic Abilities 314
Intelligence 314
Gender Similarities and Differences in Means 315
Gender Similarities and Differences in Variance 315
Mathematical Ability 316
Gender Similarities and Differences in Means 316
Gender Similarities and Differences in Variance 317
Aptitude Versus Grades 318
Verbal Ability 319
Gender Similarities and Differences in Means 319
Gender Similarities and Differences in Variance 319
Summary of Gender Similarities and Differences in Academic Ability 320
Explanations for Gender Similarities and Differences in Academic Ability 320
Gender and Academic Preferences 322
Explanations for Gender Similarities and Differences in Academic Preferences 323
Implications of Gender Similarities and Differences in Academic Abilities and Preferences 325
Directions for Future Research 325
Effect Size Versus Practical Significance 325
Moving Beyond Girls and Mathematical Ability 325
Availability of Intervention 326
Gender Differences in Academic Preferences 326
Extend Gender Differences Research Cross-Nationally 327
Constellations of Abilities 327
References 327
16 Gender, Spatial Abilities, and Wayfinding 331
Gender, Spatial Abilities, and Wayfinding 331
Types of Spatial Abilities 332
Mental Rotation 332
Spatial Perception 333
Spatial Visualization 334
Object Location Memory 335
Dynamic Spatial Ability 336
Underlying Cognitive Processes 336
Spatial Strategies 336
Spatial Memory Processes 336
Biological Factors in Gender Differences in Spatial Ability 337
Hormonal Influences 337
Brain Organization 338
Evolutionary Explanations 339
Experiential and Sociocultural Factors 340
Spatial Experience 340
Sociocultural Differences 340
Stereotype Threat 341
Training Effects 341
Wayfinding 342
Conclusions and Future Directions 345
References 346
17 Gender and Creativity 356
Illustrative Cases of Creative Women 357
Creativity Criteria 359
Empirical Studies of Culture and Gender 360
Gender Differences in Divergent Thinking 362
Gender Differences in Personality Indicators 363
Androgyny and Cognitive Styles 365
Conclusions and Future Directions 366
References 368
Part V Communication 371
18 Words Matter: The Language of Gender 372
Sex or Gender? Whats the Difference? 374
Masculinity and Femininity 376
Language and Sexual Minorities 378
Advice from the APA Style Manual on Gender, Sexuality, and Ethnicity 380
Historical Overview of Revisions 380
Description of Guidelines to Reduce Bias in Language 382
Evaluation of Compliance with Guidelines 383
Future Directions 384
References 385
19 She Said, He Said: Gender, Language, and Power 389
Difference as Deficit 390
Women's Style of Speaking 390
Research on Lakoff's Model 390
Critique of Lakoff's Model 391
Remediating Womens Deficits 392
Assertiveness Training 392
Research on Assertiveness Training 393
Negotiation: Another Deficit in Women's Communication? 393
Critique of Negotiations Deficit 394
The Two Cultures Approach 395
Miscommunication 395
You Just Don't Understand 396
Critique of the Miscommunication Models 396
Difference as Dominance 397
Gender and Inequality 397
Talking Time 398
Interruptions 399
Resisting and Derogating Women's Requests 401
Profanity 401
Verbal Harassment as Dominance 403
Womens Talk as Relational 403
Placing Value on Women's Talk 403
Minimal Responses 404
Small Talk 404
Gossip 405
What About Men's Deficiencies? 409
Directions for Future Research: Re-thinking Gender, Language, and Power 410
Importance of Context 411
Changing Conceptions of Gender 411
Gendered Language in Relation to Social Roles 412
Toward a Postmodern Perspective 412
Toward a Feminist Postmodern Approach to Gender and Language 413
Directions for Future Research 414
References 414
20 Gender, Power, and Nonverbal Behavior 421
Definition and Importance of Nonverbal Behavior 422
The Role of Nonverbal Behavior for Accurate Person Perception 422
Gender and Nonverbal Behavior 424
Power and Nonverbal Behavior 426
Nonverbal Expression of Power 426
Perception of Power Through Nonverbal Behavior 427
Power and Interpersonal Accuracy 427
Disentangling Gender and Power with Respect to Nonverbal Behavior 428
Gender as a Moderator of the Relation Between Power and Nonverbal Behavior 429
Summary and Future Directions 430
References 432
Part VI Emotion and Motivation 436
21 Gender, Emotion, and Socialization 437
Stereotypes and Display Rules 438
Nature of Emotional Stereotypes 438
Accuracy of Stereotypes 440
Emotion Regulation 440
Self-reported Emotion and Expression 442
Self-reports of General Emotional Experience and Expression 442
Self-reports of Specific Emotions 443
What Do Self-reports Measure? 444
Emotions Expressed in Behavioral Contexts 444
Facial Expressions and Other Nonverbal Behaviors 445
Nonverbal Decoding Skill 446
Emotional Competence 447
Relationship Specificity 447
Cultural Specificity 449
Physiological Arousal 450
Neural Substrates of Emotional Functioning 451
Etiology of Gender Differences 451
A Developmental Perspective 452
Putting Distal and Proximal Cues Together: The Example of Smiling 453
Concluding Thoughts and Future Research Directions 454
References 456
22 Sex and Gender Differences in Eating Behavior 463
Amount Eaten 464
Main Effects 464
Interactions 466
Food Preferences 470
Main Effects 470
Interactions 471
Hunger 472
Conclusions 473
Directions for Future Research 474
References 474
23 Gender Differences in Sexuality 478
Theories of Gender and Sexuality 478
Psychoanalytic Theory 478
Neo-analytic Theory 480
Evolutionary Psychology 480
Cognitive Social Learning Theory 481
Social Structural Theory 482
Gender Schema Theory 483
Summary of Theories 483
Research on Gender Differences in Sexual Behaviors 483
Meta-analytic Findings 483
Large Surveys 485
Other Sexual Behaviors 485
Gender Differences in Sexual Attitudes 486
Gender Differences in Attitudes Toward Homosexuality 486
Gender Differences in Sexual Desire 487
Gender and Mate Selection and Retention 488
Explaining Gender Differences in Sexuality 488
Self-reports 488
Biological Factors 489
Socio-cultural Factors 491
Other Factors 492
Transgender 493
Future Direction 494
Conclusion 494
References 495
Part VII Lifespan Development 499
24 Gender Identity and Stereotyping in Early and Middle Childhood 500
Gender Identity 500
Definition 500
Multidimensionality 501
Individual Differences and Variation 503
Summary 504
Gender Stereotyping 504
Definition 505
Developmental Trajectory 505
Summary 507
Possible Antecedents of Gender Identity and Stereotyping 507
Cognitive Development 507
Perceptual Distinctions of Gender Categories 509
Conceptual Distinctions of Gender Categories and Labeling 509
Parent and Sociocultural Influences 509
Essentialism 511
Summary 512
Possible Consequences of Gender Identity and Stereotyping 512
Possible Consequences of Gender Identity 513
Possible Consequences of Gender Stereotyping 519
Summary 522
Future Directions 522
References 523
25 Gender in Adolescence: Applying a Person-in-Context Approachto Gender Identity and Roles 531
Global Identity Changes in Adolescence 532
Gender Identity Changes in Adolescence 533
The Gender Intensification Hypothesis 534
Person-in-Context Influences 536
Puberty 537
Family 540
Peers 541
Cross-Gender Interactions: Overcoming Gender Segregation and Developing Romantic Relationships 543
Culture/Media 545
Understanding the Role of Gender in the Development of Psychopathology 547
Depression and Other Internalizing Behaviors 547
Aggression and Other Externalizing Behaviors 549
Future Directions 552
References 554
26 Gender, Adult Development, and Aging 562
Gender and Personality in Adulthood 563
Erikson's Theory of Personality Development 563
Critiques of Gender in Erikson's Theory and Beyond 565
Critiques of Erikson's Developmental Theory 566
Critique: Culture, Sexual Orientation, and History in Erikson's Theory 568
Gender and the Aging Body and Mind 569
Gender and Aging Bodies 570
Gender and Aging Minds 571
Gender and Changes in Social Roles Across the Lifespan 573
Gender, Roles, and Well-Being 573
Changing Work and Family Roles 574
Conclusions and Future Directions for Research on Gender and Adulthood 576
References 578
Author Index 584
Subject Index 664