Enclyclopedia of Public International Law (eBook)

Front Cover 1
Human Rights and the Individual in International Law: International Economic Relations 4
Copyright Page 5
Table of Contents 8
LIST OF ENTRIES 10
INTRODUCTORY NOTE 6
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS 14
CHAPTER 1. AFRICAN CHARTER ON HUMAN AND PEOPLES' 
18 
1. Historical Background 18
2. Individual and Collective Rights 18
3. The Commission 19
4. Duties 19
5. Evaluation 20
CHAPTER 
21 
1. Background 21
2. Judgments 21
CHAPTER 
23 
1. Notion 23
2. Historical Evolution 23
3. Current Legal Situation 25
4. Evaluation 28
CHAPTER 
28 
1. Customary International Law 28
2. Treaty law 29
3. Evaluation 30
CHAPTER 
31 
1. General Scope 31
2. Lawfulness 31
3. Collective Expulsion 33
CHAPTER 
33 
1. Introduction 33
2. Voluntary Military Service of Aliens 34
3. Compulsory Military Service of Aliens 34
4. Regulations by Treaties 36
CHAPTER 
37 
1. Notion 37
2. Expropriation and Nationalization 37
3. Compensation 39
4. Expropriation in Wartime 39
CHAPTER 
40 
1. Drafting History 40
2. Rights Guaranteed 41
3. Convention Organs 42
4. Evaluation 44
CHAPTER 
44 
CHAPTER 
46 
1. Terminology 46
2. Sources 47
3. Scope of Application 48
4. Respect for Prevailing Foreign Interests 50
5. Interests of the Individual 52
6. Judicial Cooperation 52
7. Harmonization of Substantive Law 53
CHAPTER 
54 
1. Notion and Origin 54
2. Illegality under International Law 55
3. International Reaction 56
CHAPTER 
57 
1. Origin 57
2. Concept 58
3. Legal Régime 58
CHAPTER 
59 
1. Concepts 59
2. History 60
3. The Right to Grant Asylum 62
4. A Right to be Granted Asylum 63
CHAPTER 
63 
1. Historical Background 63
2. Parties and Contents 64
3. Subsequent Events and Evaluation 64
CHAPTER 
65 
1. Introduction 65
2. Historical Evolution of Uniform Laws on Bills of Exchange 65
3. Historical Evolution of Uniform Laws on Cheques 67
4. Current Legal Situation 67
5. The Solutions Adopted by UNCITRAL 68
6. Evaluation 68
CHAPTER 
70 
.. Historical Development 70
1. Origins of British Subjecthood 70
2. The British Nationality and Status of Aliens Act of 1914 71
3. The British Nationality Act of 1948 72
4. From 1949 to 1983 74
B. The Current Legal Situation 74
1. British Subjects and Commonwealth Citizens 74
2. British Citizens, British Dependent Territories Citizens and British Overseas Citizens 75
3. British Protected Persons 75
4. Citizens of the Republic of Ireland 75
5. Acquisition and Transmission of British Citizenship 75
CHAPTER 
76 
CHAPTER 
77 
CHAPTER 
79 
1. The Doctrine 79
2. The Clause 80
3. Current Significance 81
CHAPTER 
81 
1. IMF Articles of Agreement 81
2. OECD and Regional Arrangements 84
3. Capital Markets 85
4. Conclusions 86
CHAPTER 
87 
CHAPTER 
88 
1. Historical Background 88
2. Content 89
3. Legal Effects of the Charter 90
4. Evaluation 91
CHAPTER 
93 
1. The Facts 93
2. The Admissibility of the Actions 93
3. The Decisions relating to the Main Issue 94
CHAPTER 
95 
1. Notion 95
2. Emergence and Evolution 95
3. Scope of the System 97
4. Special Legal Issues 98
CHAPTER 
99 
1. Definition 99
2. International Treaties 100
3. Current Legal Situation 100
4. Special Legal Problems 101
5. Evaluation 102
CHAPTER 
102 
1. Notion and Objects 102
2. Historical Review 103
3. Multilateral Arrangements and Bilateral Treaty Practice 105
4. Main Types of Bilateral Commercial Treaties 106
5. Evaluation 108
CHAPTER 
108 
1. Notion and Historical Background 109
2. Main Legal Characteristics 109
3. Special Legal Problems 111
4. Evaluation 111
CHAPTER 
111 
1. Economic Background 111
2. Historical Evolution 112
3. Categories of Commodity Mechanisms 112
4. Main Legal Characteristics 113
5. Evaluation 116
CHAPTER 
117 
1. Notion and Terminology 117
2. History 119
3. Types of Concessions 120
4. Stability of Concessionary Relationships 122
5. Evaluation 122
CHAPTER 
124 
1. Notion and Historical Evolution 124
2. Legal Application 124
3. Current Legal Situation 125
4. Legal Problems and Evaluation 125
CHAPTER 
126 
1. Crimes punishable under internationally prescribed municipal criminal law 126
2. Crimes punishable under internationally authorized municipal criminal law 126
3. Crimes punishable under international law 127
CHAPTER 
127 
1. Notion 127
2. Privileges and Immunities 128
5. Special Regimes to Abolish Customs Barriers 129
4. Frontier Regions 129
5. Selected Customs Regulations 129
6. Influence of Topographical Conditions 130
7. Evaluation 131
CHAPTER 
131 
A. General Description 131
1. Legal Bases Notion
2. Sovereign Customs Prerogatives and "Self- Limitation' 132
B. Historical and Economic Background 133
1. The State as Economic Unit 133
2. Free Trade as an Economic Form 134
3. Modern Hybrid Forms 134
C. Institutes and Institutions 135
1. Regulation by Treaties (excluding international organizations) 135
2. Organized Customs Associations 136
D. Universal Customs Systems 138
1. Brussels Customs Council 138
2. General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 139
CHAPTER 
140 
CHAPTER 
143 
1. Background 143
2. The Judgments 144
3. Evaluation 144
CHAPTER 
145 
1. Notion 145
2. Historical Development of Legal Rules 145
3. Legal Developments after World War II 147
4. Legal Problems of Decolonization 148
5. Forced Exile 148
6. Conclusion 150
CHAPTER 
151 
1. Notion 151
2. Evolution of Legal Rules 151
3. Evaluation 153
CHAPTER 
155 
1. Notion 155
2. Reasons for Double Taxation 155
3. Avoidance of Double Taxation 156
4. Perspectives 157
CHAPTER 
158 
1. Historical Background 158
2: The Drago-Porter Convention 158
3. Special Legal Problems 159
4. Evaluation 159
CHAPTER 
160 
1. Introduction 160
2. Forms of Aid 160
3. Bilateral Aid 161
4. Multilateral Aid 162
5. The Right to Development Aid 163
CHAPTER 
164 
1. Notion 164
2. Historical Evolution 164
3. Legal Aspects 165
CHAPTER 
166 
A. Notion 166
B. Historical Overview 167
1. Origins 167
2. Post-World War II Bretton Woods System
3. Questioning the Bretton Woods System 169
C. Policies and Conflicts 170
1. Managing the World Economy 170
2. Policies of Economic Interdependence 171
D. Characteristics 172
1. Relation to General International Law 172
2. The Participants 173
E. Fundamental Norms 173
1. General Considerations 173
2. ''Centrar" 
173 
F. Conclusion 177
CHAPTER 
178 
1. History and Typology 178
2. Principal Organizations and Groups 179
3. Comparative Legal Aspects 182
4. Evaluation 183
CHAPTER 
184 
CHAPTER 
186 
1. Notion and Historical Development 186
2. Embargo on Ships 186
3. Trade Embargo 187
CHAPTER 
191 
1. Notion and Terminology 191
2. History 191
3. Current Legal Situation 192
4. Special Legal Problems 193
5. Evaluation 193
CHAPTER 
194 
1. Historical Background 194
2. Facts 194
3. The Decisions 194
CHAPTER 
195 
1. Composition 196
2. Purpose 196
3. Procedure 197
4. Evaluation 200
CHAPTER 
201 
1. History 201
2. Status of the ECHR in International and Municipal Law 202
3. Interpretation of the ECHR 203
4. Exceptional Restrictions 205
5. Evolution of Convention Rights in the Jurisprudence of the Court and Commission 206
6. Evaluation 208
CHAPTER 
209 
1. General Characteristics 209
2. The Judges 210
3. Independence, Immunities and Conflicts of Interest of Judges 211
4. Jurisdiction of the Court 211
5. Jurisdiction and Admissibility 213
6. Competence as regards Additional Protocols 214
7. Interpretation and Revision of Judgments 214
8. Legal Aid for Applicants 215
9. Advisory Competence 215
10. Judicial Organization and Procedure 215
11. Methods of Interpretation 217
12. Authority and Execution of Judgments 220
13. Evaluation 222
CHAPTER 
224 
1. Concept 224
2. Historical Background 225
3. Execution of the Plan 226
4. Evaluation 227
CHAPTER 
228 
1. Historical Background 228
2. Substantive Provisions 228
3. Domestic Implementation 229
4. Supervision 230
5. Evaluation 230
CHAPTER 
231 
1. Historical Developments 231
2. Current Legal Situation 233
3. Protection of Property in Human Rights Instruments 236
CHAPTER 
239 
A. Notion and Purpose 239
.. Historical Evolution 239
C. Sources of Contemporary Extradition Law 240
D. Duty to Extradite 240
E. Substantive Law 240
1. Principles 240
2. Circumstances Precluding Return 242
F. Extradition Procedure 244
G. Related Procedures 245
1. Conditional Surrender 245
2. Re-Extradition to a Third State 245
3. Transit 245
4. Concurring Requests 245
H. Evaluation 245
CHAPTER 
246 
1. Notion 246
2. Historical Evolution 246
3. Significance 246
4. Content 247
5. Existing Treaties 247
6. Evaluation 248
CHAPTER 
248 
1. Notion 248
2. Forced Labour in Modern States 249
3. Historical Evolution of Legal Rules 249
4. Current Legal Situation 251
CHAPTER 
251 
1. Notion 251
2. Historical Survey 252
3. Current Legal Situation 252
4. Special Issues 253
CHAPTER 
254 
1. Notion 254
2. Form and Contents 255
3. Legal Issues 255
CHAPTER 
257 
1. Public Debts 257
2. War-related Public Debts 258
3. Private Debts 259
4. Effect of War 259
5. Interference by Sovereign Acts under Municipal Law 260
6. Exchange Controls International Arrangements
7. Development Loans 261
8. Debt Rescheduling 261
9. Debts Owed to Intergovernmental Organizations 262
CHAPTER 
263 
1. Notion 263
2. Historical Evolution 263
3. Current Legal Status 265
4. Special Legal Problems 266
CHAPTER 
267 
1. Notion 267
2. History 268
3. Common Issues of Free Trade Areas 269
4. Evaluation 271
CHAPTER 
272 
1. History and Ambit of the Genocide Convention 272
2. Content of the Convention 272
3. Evaluation of the Convention 272
4. Further Action by the United Nations and the Council of Europe 273
5. The Eichmann Case 274
6. The Draft International Criminal Code 274
CHAPTER 
275 
1. The Problem 275
2. Relevant Texts 275
3. Legal Evaluation 276
CHAPTER 
277 
1. Historical Background 277
2. Contents of the Charter 279
3. Significance of the Charter 280
CHAPTER 
281 
A. Notion 281
1. Forceful Detention 281
2. The Status of Hostages 281
3. The Hostage-Taker 282
4. Act of Hostage-Taking 282
5. Motive 282
.. Normative Application 283
1. In General 283
2. Contexts of Application 283
3. Relationship between National Criminal Laws and International Criminal Law 283
4. The Duty to Prosecute or Extradite 284
CHAPTER 
285 
1. Notion 285
2. The Antecedents of Contemporary Human Rights Law 285
3. Human Rights in International Agreements and in Customary Law 286
4. Human Rights Recognized in International Law 287
5. The Character of State Obligations 289
6. Rights and Remedies 290
CHAPTER 
291 
1. Introduction 292
2. An Overview of the Institutions 292
3. Types of Human Rights Activities 296
CHAPTER 
301 
1. Historical Evolution of Human Rights in Africa 302
2. Lagos Conference on the Rule of Law, 1961 304
3. The Creation of the OAU 304
4. The United Nations and African States 304
5. Cooperation in the Field of Refugees 305
6. Obstacles in the Way of Regional Machinery for the Protection of Human Rights 305
7. The Promotion of a Convention on Human Rights 306
8. Developments Leading to the Drafting of the African Charter on Human Rights 306
9. An Overview of the Charter 308
CHAPTER 
309 
1. Notion 309
2. Historical Evolution 309
3. Current Legal Situation 310
4. Special Legal Problems 310
5. Evaluation 311
CHAPTER 
311 
1. Background 311
2. Establishment 312
3. Organizational Structure 312
4. Activities 312
5. Evaluation 313
CHAPTER 
314 
A. Historical Background 314
B. General Character of the Covenants 314
C. The Rights Guaranteed 315
1. International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights 315
2. The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights 317
D. The Supervision Procedures 318
1. The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights 318
2. The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights 319
CHAPTER 
320 
1. Historical Background 320
2. Contents of the Universal Declaration 322
3. Legal Problems and Evaluation 323
CHAPTER 
325 
1. Concept 325
2. History 325
3. The Right to Immigrate 325
4. National Regulation 326
5. Specific Legal Problems 327
6. Evaluation 327
CHAPTER 
328 
1. Notion, History 328
2. Current Legal Situation 328
3. Special Legal Problems 330
4. Evaluation 330
CHAPTER 
331 
1. Notion, History 331
2. Current Legal Situation 331
3. Concluding Remarks 332
CHAPTER 
333 
1. General Remarks 333
2. Schools of Thought 333
3. The Role of the Individual in the Law-Making Process 334
4. Rights and Duties of Individuals 335
5. Conclusions 337
CHAPTER 
338 
1. History 338
2. Structure 338
3. Principal Activities 338
4. Conclusion 340
CHAPTER 
341 
1. Institutional Framework 341
2. Jurisdiction 341
3. Conclusion 343
CHAPTER 
343 
CHAPTER 
344 
1. Historical Background 344
2. Structure 345
3. Functions 345
4. Decision-Making Process 346
5. Activities 347
6. Special Legal Problems 348
CHAPTER 80. INTERNATIONAL CRIMES 349
1. History 349
2. Definition 349
3. Crimes Against International Law 350
4. International Crimes in the Broad Sense 352
CHAPTER 
353 
1. Notion 353
2. Legal Evolution 354
3. Regulatory Tasks 356
4. Evaluation 359
CHAPTER 
361 
1. Concepts and Definitions 361
2. History of Investment Codes 363
3. Substantive Detail 363
4. Current Problems 366
CHAPTER 
368 
1. Notion 368
2. Historical Evolution 368
3. Legal Problems 369
CHAPTER 
370 
CHAPTER 
372 
1. Notion 372
2. Specific Instances 372
3. Conclusion 375
CHAPTER 
375 
1. Context 375
2. Factual and Legal Background 376
3. Basic Issues of the Arbitration 377
4. Evaluation 378
CHAPTER 
378 
1. Notion 378
2. Historical Evolution 379
3. Current Legal Situation 379
4. Special Legal Aspects 380
CHAPTER 
381 
1. Background 381
2. Contents 381
3. Types of Regulations 382
4. Arbitration 383
5. Implementation of the Agreement 383
CHAPTER 
384 
1. History 385
2. Definition 385
3. Advantages 385
4. Jurisprudential Significance 386
5. Lump Sum Agreements and Traditional International Law 387
6. Evaluation 388
CHAPTER 
389 
A. Introduction 389
B. Prevention of Manpower Trafficking 390
C. The Status of Lawfully-Admitted Migrant Workers under International Law 390
1. Fundamental Civil Rights 390
2. Economic, Social and Cultural Rights 391
3. Provisions to meet the Specific Needs of Migrant Workers 392
D. The Rights in International Law of Migrant Workers in Unlawful Status 393
E. Concluding Remarks 394
CHAPTER 
394 
CHAPTER 
396 
1. Notion 396
2. Types and Purposes 397
3. International Legal Foundations and Restraints 398
4. National Legal Controls 399
5. Jurisdiction over Personnel 399
CHAPTER 
399 
1. Notion 399
2. Historical Development 400
3. Current Legal Situation 400
CHAPTER 
402 
1. Notion 402
2. Historical Evolution of International Rules 403
3. Implementation Measures and the League of Nations 404
4. The United Nations and New Developments 405
5. Art. 27 of the Covenant on Civil and Political Rights 406
6. Political Autonomy of Minority Groups 407
7. Other Human Rights Conventions and Minorities 408
8. Regional and Local Protection of Minorities 408
9. International Measures of Implementation 410
10. Recent Trends 411
CHAPTER 
412 
CHAPTER 
413 
1. Definition 413
2. Money as a Matter of International Organization 414
3. International Payments as a Matter of International Regulation 415
4. International Monetary Law and Warfare 417
5. Monetary Sovereignty and its Limitations 418
6. International Monetary Law and Inter-State Debts 418
CHAPTER 
420 
1. Definitions 420
2. Some Current Examples 421
3. Costs and Benefits 422
4. Some Other Current Examples: Monetary Zones 423
5. Legal Tender Clearing Arrangements
6. Membership in IMF 426
CHAPTER 
426 
CHAPTER 
428 
1. Notion 428
2. Function 428
3. Fields of Application 428
4. Early History 429
5. The Conditional Clause 429
6. The Unconditional Clause 429
7. Conditions and Other Restrictions 430
8. Preferences for Developing States 430
9. General Rules of Application 431
10. Attempts at Codification 432
11. Conclusion 432
CHAPTER 
433 
1. Historical Background 433
2. Notion 434
3. Regulation by Municipal Law 434
4. Limitations by International Law 434
5. Consequences of Nationality 437
6. Special Problems 439
CHAPTER 
441 
1. Terminology 441
2. Fields of Application 442
3. Legal Basis 442
4. Customary International Law 443
5. Collateral Provisions 443
6. Trends of Development 444
CHAPTER 
445 
1. Notion and Types 445
2. Historical Development of Legal Rules 445
3. Current Legal Situation 446
4. Special Legal Problems 447
5. Evaluation 448
CHAPTER 
448 
1. Introduction 448
2. The Law of Neutrality and Economic Relations 449
3. Policy of Neutrality 449
4. State Practice and Policy in External Economic Affairs 449
CHAPTER 
451 
1. Definition, Scope 451
2. Historical Evolution 451
3. Legal Problems 454
4. Conclusions, Policy Considerations 455
CHAPTER 
455 
1. Notion 455
2. Historical Evolution of Legal Rules 456
3. Special Legal Problems 457
4. Evaluation 460
CHAPTER 
461 
1. Notion 461
2. Historical Evolution of Legal Rules 461
3. Current Legal Situation 462
4. Special Legal Problems 463
5. Evaluation 463
CHAPTER 
464 
1. Notion 464
2. Historic Evolution of Legal Rules 465
3. Current Legal Situation 466
4. Special Legal Problems 468
5. Evaluation 468
CHAPTER 
469 
1. Notion 469
2. Historical Evolution of Legal Rules regarding Refugees 471
3. Current Legal Situation 471
4. Special Legal Problems 472
5. Evaluation 473
CHAPTER 
473 
1. Concept 473
2. Prisoners of War 474
3. Repatriation of Civilians 475
4. Right of Non-Repatriation 476
CHAPTER 
478 
CHAPTER 
479 
1. Background 479
2. Judgment 479
3. Evaluation 479
CHAPTER 
480 
A. Historical Survey of Uniform Laws in this Area 480
1. Unification of Conflict of Laws 480
2. Unification of Substantive Law 481
B. Current Legal Situation 483
1. The Hague Uniform Sales Law 1964 483
2. Comecon General Conditions 484
3. Incoterms and Other Rules 484
C. Evaluation 484
1. The Hague Uniform Sales Law 484
2. UN Sales Law 484
3. Special Arrangements for Consumer Contracts and Product Liability 485
4. Supplementary Provisions 485
CHAPTER 
485 
1. Background 485
2. The Decision 486
3. Evaluation 487
CHAPTER 
487 
.. Historical Background 487
B. Development under the Aegis of the United Nations 488
1. Incorporation into the UN Charter 488
2. Development through UN Practice 489
C. Status, Scope and Content in Contemporary International Law 490
1. Self-Determination as a Binding Rule of International Law 490
2. Self-determination and the Interpretation and Development of International Law 491
CHAPTER 
493 
1. Definition 493
2. Historical Beginnings 493
3. The Modern Period 494
4. UN Decade for Women 495
5. Regional Action 496
6. Current Legal Status 496
7. Evaluation 497
CHAPTER 
498 
1. Definitions 498
2. Historical Development 498
3. Current Legal Status 500
CHAPTER 
501 
1. Notion 501
2. Historical Evolution of Legal Rules 502
3. Current Legal Situation 502
4. Special Problems 504
5. Evaluation 504
CHAPTER 
505 
1. Notion 505
2. Historical Evolution 506
3. Current Situation and Evaluation 506
CHAPTER 
507 
1. Definition 507
2. Causes of Statelessness 507
3. Evolution of Legal Rules 508
4. Evaluation 510
CHAPTER 
511 
A. Definition of International Taxation 511
B. Sources 512
1. International Law 512
2. Relationship to Municipal Law 512
3. Application of Legal Norms 512
C. Jurisdiction to Tax 512
1. Persons Subject to Tax: Criteria 513
2. Taxable Income and Property 514
3. Conflict of Tax Jurisdictions 516
D. Tax Restrictions 516
1. Abuse of Rights 516
2. International Consideration 516
3. Minimum Contacts 516
4. Proportionality 517
E. Tax Avoidance 517
1. International Tax Planning 517
2. Tax Havens 517
3. Tax Emigration 517
4. Base Companies 518
5. Transfer Pricing 519
F. Tax Cooperation 519
1. Revenue Exception Rule 519
2. Double Taxation Agreements 519
3. General Cooperation 520
G. Activities of International and Regional Bodies 520
1. League of Nations 520
2. United Nations 521
3. OEEC/OECD 521
4. Council of Europe 521
5. Andean Pact 521
6. Comecon 521
7. International Fiscal Association 521
CHAPTER 
523 
1. Notion 523
2. Evolution of Legal Rules 523
3. Current Legal Situation 525
4. Evaluation 526
CHAPTER 
527 
1. Definition 527
2. Historical Evolution and Current Legal Situation 528
CHAPTER 
530 
CHAPTER 
532 
1. Notion and Terminology 532
2. History 533
3. Current Problems Arising from the Activities of Transnational Enterprises 534
4. Special Legal Problems 535
5. Evaluation 535
CHAPTER 
536 
CHAPTER 126. UNITED STATES–IRAN AGREEMENT OF JANUARY 19, 1981 (HOSTAGES AND FINANCIAL ARRANGEMENTS) 539
1. Historical Background 539
2. The Accords 540
3. Settlement of Claims by the Tribunal 541
4. Validity and Effect 543
CHAPTER 
543 
1. Factual Background 543
2. Historical Evolution of Legal Activities 544
3. Actions by International, Intergovernmental and Non-governmental Organizations 544
4. Special International Law Aspects 546
5. Evaluation 546
CHAPTER 
547 
1. Economic Principles of World Trade 547
2. Political Principles of World Trade 549
3. Principles of Private Transnational Commercial Law 550
4. Principles of National Foreign Trade Legislation 551
5. Principles of Public International Trade Law 552
6. Principles, Rules and Order 554
LIST OF ARTICLES FOR THE ENTIRE ENCYCLOPEDIA 558