Based on the author's wide-ranging experience as a robot user, supplier and consultant, Implementation of Robot Systems will enable you to approach the use of robots in your plant or facility armed with the right knowledge base and awareness of critical factors to take into account. This book starts with the basics of typical applications and robot capabilities before covering all stages of successful robot integration. Potential problems and pitfalls are flagged and worked through so that you can learn from others' mistakes and plan proactively with possible issues in mind. Taking in content from the author's graduate level teaching of automation and robotics for engineering in business and his consultancy as part of a UK Government program to help companies advance their technologies and practices in the area, Implementation of Robot Systems blends technical information with critical financial and business considerations to help you stay ahead of the competition.
- Includes case studies of typical robot capabilities and use across a range of industries, with real-world installation examples and problems encountered
- Provides step-by-step coverage of the various stages required to achieve successful implementation, including system design, financial justification, working with suppliers and project management
- Offers no-nonsense advice on the pitfalls and issues to anticipate, along with guidance on how to avoid or resolve them for cost and time-effective solutions
Mike Wilson is president of the British Automation and Robotics Association (BARA), director of the Processing & Packaging Machinery Association (PPMA), vice chairman of the Engineering and Machinery Alliance (EAMA) and former chairman of the International Federation of Robotics (IFR). Mike has a 30 year career working with robots as a user, supplier and advisor. He is an experienced automation consultant, working throughout Europe, North America and India across a variety of industries as managing director of Creative Automation Solutions Ltd.
Based on the author's wide-ranging experience as a robot user, supplier and consultant, Implementation of Robot Systems will enable you to approach the use of robots in your plant or facility armed with the right knowledge base and awareness of critical factors to take into account.This book starts with the basics of typical applications and robot capabilities before covering all stages of successful robot integration. Potential problems and pitfalls are flagged and worked through so that you can learn from others' mistakes and plan proactively with possible issues in mind.Taking in content from the author's graduate level teaching of automation and robotics for engineering in business and his consultancy as part of a UK Government program to help companies advance their technologies and practices in the area, Implementation of Robot Systems blends technical information with critical financial and business considerations to help you stay ahead of the competition. Includes case studies of typical robot capabilities and use across a range of industries, with real-world installation examples and problems encountered Provides step-by-step coverage of the various stages required to achieve successful implementation, including system design, financial justification, working with suppliers and project management Offers no-nonsense advice on the pitfalls and issues to anticipate, along with guidance on how to avoid or resolve them for cost and time-effective solutions
Front Cover 1
Implementation of Robot Systems: An introduction to robotics, automation, and successful systems integration in manufacturing 4
Copyright 5
Contents 6
Acknowledgements 8
Dedication 10
About the Author 12
List of Figures 14
List of Tables 16
Chapter 1: Introduction 18
Chapter Contents 18
1.1. Scope 19
1.2. Introduction to Automation 21
1.3. Evolution of Robots 23
1.4. Development of Robot Applications 28
1.4.1. Automotive Industry 28
1.4.2. Automotive Components 32
1.4.3. Other Sectors 33
1.4.4. Future Potential 33
1.5. Robots Versus Employment 34
Chapter 2: Industrial Robots 36
Chapter Contents 36
2.1. Robot Structures 38
2.1.1. Articulated Arm 39
2.1.2. SCARA 41
2.1.3. Cartesian 43
2.1.4. Parallel 44
2.1.5. Cylindrical 45
2.2. Robot Performance 45
2.3. Robot Selection 48
2.4. Benefits of Robots 50
2.4.1. Benefits to System Integrators 51
2.4.2. Benefits to End Users 52
Reduce Operating Costs 52
Improve Product Quality and Consistency 53
Improve Quality of Work for Employees 53
Increase Production Output Rate 53
Increase Product Manufacturing Flexibility 54
Reduce Material Waste and Increase Yield 54
Comply with Safety Rules and Improve Workplace Health and Safety 54
Reduce Labour Turnover and Difficulty of Recruiting Workers 55
Reduce Capital Costs 55
Save Space in High-Value Manufacturing Areas 55
Chapter 3: Automation System Components 56
Chapter Contents 56
3.1. Handling Equipment 57
3.1.1. Conveyors 58
3.1.2. Discrete Vehicles 59
3.1.3. Part Feeding Equipment 60
Bowl Feeders 61
Linear Feeders 62
Blow Feeders 62
Bandoleer Feeders 63
Magazine Feeders 63
3.2. Vision Systems 63
3.3. Process Equipment 66
3.3.1. Welding 67
Spot Welding 67
Arc Welding 68
3.3.2. Painting 73
3.3.3. Dispensing of Adhesives and Sealants 74
3.3.4. Cutting and Material Removal 74
3.4. Grippers and Tool Changers 76
3.5. Tooling and Fixturing 79
3.6. Assembly Automation Components 81
3.7. System Controls 83
3.8. Safety and Guarding 86
3.9. Summary 89
Chapter 4: Typical Applications 92
Chapter Contents 92
4.1. Welding 93
4.1.1. Arc Welding 93
4.1.2. Spot Welding 95
4.1.3. Laser Welding 97
4.2. Dispensing 98
4.2.1. Painting 98
4.2.2. Adhesive and Sealant Dispensing 100
4.3. Processing 102
4.3.1. Mechanical Cutting 102
4.3.2. Water Jet Cutting 103
4.3.3. Laser Cutting 103
4.3.4. Grinding and Deburring 104
4.3.5. Polishing 106
4.4. Handling and Machine Tending 107
4.4.1. Casting 108
4.4.2. Plastic Moulding 109
4.4.3. Stamping and Forging 110
4.4.4. Machine Tool Tending 111
4.4.5. Measurement, Inspection, and Testing 114
4.4.6. Palletising 115
4.4.7. Packing and Picking 116
4.5. Assembly 117
Chapter 5: Developing a Solution 120
Chapter Contents 120
5.1. Determining Application Parameters 121
5.2. Initial Concept Design 123
5.2.1. Arc Welding 124
5.2.2. Machine Tool Tending 128
5.2.3. Palletising 131
5.2.4. Packing 134
Primary Packing 134
Secondary Packing 136
5.2.5. Assembly 138
5.2.6. Other Applications 140
Spot and Laser Welding 140
Painting and Dispensing 140
Material Removal 141
5.3. Controls and Safety 141
5.4. Testing and Simulation 143
5.5. Refining the Concept 145
Chapter 6: Specification Preparation 150
Chapter Contents 150
6.1. Functional Elements of a Specification 151
6.1.1. Overview 152
6.1.2. Automation Concept 152
6.1.3. Requirements 152
6.2. Scope of Supply 154
6.2.1. Free Issue 154
6.2.2. Safety 154
6.2.3. Services 155
6.2.4. Project Management 155
6.2.5. Design 155
6.2.6. Manufacture and Assembly 156
6.2.7. Predelivery Tests 156
6.2.8. Delivery 157
6.2.9. Installation and Commissioning 157
6.2.10. Final Testing and Buy-Off 158
6.2.11. Standby 159
6.2.12. Training 159
6.2.13. Documentation 159
6.2.14. Warranty 160
6.2.15. Other Items 160
6.3. Buy-Off Criteria 160
6.4. Covering Letter 161
6.5. Summary 162
Chapter 7: Financial Justification 164
Chapter Contents 164
7.1. Benefits of Robots 166
7.1.1. Reduce Operating Costs 166
7.1.2. Improve Product Quality and Consistency 167
7.1.3. Improve Quality of Work for Employees 167
7.1.4. Increase Production Output 168
7.1.5. Increase Product Manufacturing Flexibility 168
7.1.6. Reduce Material Waste and Increase Yield 168
7.1.7. Comply with Safety Rules and Improve Workplace Health and Safety 169
7.1.8. Reduce Labour Turnover and Difficulty of Recruiting Workers 169
7.1.9. Reduce Capital Costs 169
7.1.10. Save Space in High-Value Manufacturing Areas 170
7.2. Quick Financial Analysis 170
7.2.1. How Conservative Is the Calculation? 171
7.2.2. What Is the Technical Risk? 171
7.2.3. Is the Solution Flexible? 171
7.2.4. What Is the Driver for the Investment? 172
7.2.5. Is the Solution Future Proofed? 172
7.2.6. Competitive Position? 172
7.2.7. Company Attitude to Automation? 172
7.2.8. Project - Go or No Go? 173
7.3. Identifying Cost Savings 173
7.3.1. Quality Cost Savings 174
7.3.2. Reduced Labour Turnover and Absenteeism 175
7.3.3. Health and Safety 175
7.3.4. Floor Space Savings 175
7.3.5. Other Savings 175
7.4. Developing the Justification 176
7.5. Need for Appropriate Budgets 177
Chapter 8: Successful Implementation 180
Chapter Contents 180
8.1. Project Planning 181
8.2. Vendor Selection 184
8.3. System Build and Buy-Off 187
8.4. Installation and Commissioning 189
8.5. Operation and Maintenance 191
8.6. Staff and Vendor Involvement 192
8.6.1. Vendors 193
8.6.2. Production Staff 193
8.6.3. Maintenance Staff 194
8.7. Avoiding Problems 195
8.7.1. Project Conception 196
Project Based on an Unrealistic Business Case 196
Project Based on State-of-Art or Immature Technology 196
Lack of Senior Management Commitment 196
Customers Funding and/or Timescale Expectations Are Unrealistic 196
8.7.2. Project Initiation 197
Vendor Setting Unrealistic Expectations on Cost, Timescale or Capability 197
Customer Failure to Define and Document Requirements 197
Failure to Achieve an Equitable Relationship 197
Customer Staffs Lack of Involvement 197
Poor Project Planning, Management, and Execution 198
Failure to Clearly Define Roles and Responsibilities 198
8.7.3. System Design and Manufacture 198
Failure to ``Freeze´´ the Requirements and Apply Change Control 198
Vendor Starting a New Phase Prior to Completing the Previous One 199
Failure to Undertake Effective Project Reviews 199
8.7.4. Implementation 199
Customer Failure to Manage the Changes Implicit in the Project 199
8.7.5. Operation 199
Inadequate User Training 199
Customer Fails to Maintain the System 199
Customer Fails to Measure the Benefit of the Project 200
8.8. Summary 200
Chapter 9: Conclusion 202
Chapter Contents 202
9.1. Automation Strategy 205
9.2. The Way Forward 208
References 212
Abbreviations 214
Bibliography 216
Appendix 218
User Requirements 221
Specification 221
Contents 222
A.1. Overview 223
A.1.1. Current Welding Operation 223
A.1.2. Automation Concept 224
A.2. Requirements 225
A.2.1. Products 225
A.2.2. Tolerances and Quality 225
A.2.3. Fixtures 226
A.2.4. Cycle Time and Availability 226
A.2.5. Welding Equipment 226
A.2.6. Controls and HMI 227
A.2.7. Enclosure 227
A.3. Scope of Supply 228
A.3.1. Free Issue Equipment 228
A.3.2. Safety 228
A.3.3. Services 228
A.3.4. Project Management 229
A.3.5. Design 229
A.3.6. Manufacture and Assembly 229
A.3.7. Pre-delivery Tests 230
Cycle Time and Availability Calculations 230
A.3.8. Delivery 232
A.3.9. Installation Requirements 232
A.3.10. Installation and Commissioning 232
A.3.11. Final Testing and Buy-off 233
A.3.12. SAT Procedure 233
Cycle Time and Availability Calculations 233
A.3.13. Documentation 234
A.3.14. Training 235
A.3.15. Spares and Service Contract 235
A.4. General 235
A.4.1. Contacts 235
A.4.2. Clarifications 236
A.4.3. Environment 236
A.4.4. Preferred Vendors 236
A.4.5. Warranty 236
A.4.6. Standards 237
Index 238
Industrial Robots
Abstract
This chapter provides more detail on industrial robots commencing with the accepted definition. The various configurations are introduced, including articulated, SCARA, cartesian, and parallel or delta. The typical applications and market shares for each configuration are discussed. The key issues regarding robot performance, including working envelope and repeatability, are discussed together with the main points to consider when selecting robots. This includes a review of the typical contents of a robot data sheet. The benefits that robots can provide are also discussed, both for system integrators and end users. This includes the 10 key benefits that robots can provide for a manufacturing facility.
Keywords
Robot configuration
Articulated
SCARA
Cartesian
Parallel
Delta
Working envelope
Repeatability
Chapter Contents
2.1 Robot Structures 21
2.1.1 Articulated Arm 22
2.1.2 SCARA 24
2.1.3 Cartesian 26
2.1.4 Parallel 27
2.1.5 Cylindrical 28
2.2 Robot Performance 28
2.3 Robot Selection 31
2.4 Benefits of Robots 33
2.4.1 Benefits to System Integrators 34
2.4.2 Benefits to End Users 35
Improve Product Quality and Consistency 36
Improve Quality of Work for Employees 36
Increase Production Output Rate 36
Increase Product Manufacturing Flexibility 37
Reduce Material Waste and Increase Yield 37
Comply with Safety Rules and Improve Workplace Health and Safety 37
Reduce Labour Turnover and Difficulty of Recruiting Workers 38
An industrial robot has been defined by ISO 8373 (International Federation of Robotics, 2013) as:
An automatically controlled, reprogrammable, multipurpose manipulator programmable in three or more axes, which may be either fixed in place or mobile for use in industrial automation applications.
Within this definition, further clarification of these terms is as follows:
• Reprogrammable – motions or auxiliary functions may be changed without physical alterations.
• Multipurpose – capable of adaptation to a different application possibly with physical alterations.
• Axis – an individual motion of one element of the robot structure, which could be either rotary or linear.
In addition to these general-purpose industrial robots, there are a number of dedicated industrial robots that fall outside this definition. These have been developed for applications such as machine tending and printed circuit board assembly and do not meet the definition because they are dedicated to a specific task and are therefore not multipurpose.
As mentioned in Chapter 1, the first application of an industrial robot was at General Motors in 1961. Since that time, robotic technology has developed at a fast pace and the robots in use today are very different to the first machines in terms of performance, capability, and cost. There have been various mechanical designs developed to meet the needs of specific applications, which are described below.
These different configurations have resulted from the ingenuity of the robot designers combined with advances in technology, which have enabled new approaches to machine design. The most significant of these was the introduction of electric drives to replace the use of hydraulics and the increasing performance of the electric drives, providing increased load-carrying capacity combined with high speed and precision.
Initially, hydraulics was used as the primary motive power. Hydraulic power was capable of providing the load-carrying capacity necessary for the early spot welding applications in the automotive industry. However, the responsiveness was poor and the repeatability and path following capabilities limited. For the first installations the robot technicians were required to start work early to turn on the robots, so they were warmed up prior to production starting, to ensure the robots performed repeatably from the first car body to welded.
Pneumatics were used to provide a low cost power source; however, this again could not achieve high repeatability due to the lack of control available. Hydraulics were also used for the early paint robots because electric drives could not, at that time, be used in the explosive atmosphere of the paint booth, caused by the use of solvent-based paints. Painting, by the nature of the application, carrying a spray gun with a 12 inches wide fan, about 12 inches from the surface, did not require the repeatability and control necessary for other applications; therefore, this proved to be a successful application for robots.
Electric drives of various different types have been used. DC servo motors were initially the most prevalent. These however had limited load-carrying capacity, which did initially provide constraints for the use of robots for spot welding applications due to the weight of the welding guns. Stepper motors were also utilised for high precision, low load-carrying applications. Once AC servo motors became available these took over the majority of applications. Their performance has continually increased providing better control, high repeatability, and precision as well as high load-carrying capacity. AC servo motors are now utilised in almost all robot designs.
2.1 Robot Structures
An industrial robot is typically some form of jointed structure of which there are various different configurations. The robot industry has defined classifications for the most common and these are:
• Articulated
• SCARA
• Cartesian
• Parallel (or Delta)
• Cylindrical.
These structures and their benefits are described in more detail below. The structures are achieved by the linking of a number of rotary and/or linear motions or joints. Each of the joints provides motion that collectively can position the robot structure, or robot arm, in a specific position. To provide the ability to position a tool, mounted on the end of the robot, at any place at any angle requires six joints, or six degrees of freedom, commonly known as six axes.
The working envelope is the volume the robot operates within. This is typically shown (see Figure 2.1) as the volume accessible by the centre of the fifth axis. Therefore, anywhere within this working envelope the robot can position a tool at any angle. The working envelope is defined by the structure of the robot arm, the lengths of each element of the arm, and the motion type and range that can be achieved by each joint. The envelope is normally shown as a side view, providing a cross-section of the envelope, produced by the motion of axes 2–6 and a plan view then illustrating how this cross-section develops when the base axis, axis 1, is moved. It should also be noted that the mounting of any tools on the robot will also have an impact on the actual envelope accessible by the robot and tool combined.
The first robot, a Unimate, was designated as a polar-type machine. This design was particularly suited to the hydraulic drive used to power the robot. The robot (Figure 2.2) provided five axes of motion; that is, five joints that could be moved to position the tool carried by the robot in a particular position. These consisted of a base rotation, a rotation at the shoulder, a movement in and out via the arm, and two rotations at the wrist. The provision of only five axes provided limitations in terms of the robot's ability to orientate the tool. However, in the early days, the control technology was unable to meet the needs for six axes machines.
2.1.1 Articulated Arm
The most common configuration is the articulated or jointed arm (Figure 2.3). This closely resembles the human arm and is very flexible. These are normally...
| Erscheint lt. Verlag | 17.11.2014 |
|---|---|
| Sprache | englisch |
| Themenwelt | Informatik ► Theorie / Studium ► Künstliche Intelligenz / Robotik |
| Technik ► Elektrotechnik / Energietechnik | |
| ISBN-10 | 0-12-404749-1 / 0124047491 |
| ISBN-13 | 978-0-12-404749-5 / 9780124047495 |
| Haben Sie eine Frage zum Produkt? |
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