Intelligent Vision Systems for Industry

1 Basic Concepts.- 1.1 Industrial Vision Systems.- 1.1.1 Justification.- 1.1.2 Limitations of Present Systems.- 1.1.3 Flexible Manufacturing Systems.- 1.1.4 Process Control.- 1.2 Systems Engineering.- 1.2.1 Importance of Context.- 1.2.2 Industrial Examples.- 1.3 Intelligent Vision.- 1.3.1 Heuristics and Algorithms.- 1.3.2 Artificial Intelligence (AI) Languages.- 1.4 Book Outline.- 2 Basic Machine Vision Techniques.- 2.1 Representations of Images.- 2.2 Elementary Image Processing Functions.- 2.2.1 Monadic, Point-by-point Operators.- 2.2.2 Dyadic, Point-by-point Operators.- 2.2.3 Local Operators.- 2.2.4 Linear Local Operators.- 2.2.5 Non-linear Local Operators.- 2.2.6 N-tuple Operators.- 2.2.7 Edge Effects.- 2.2.8 Intensity Histogram.- 2.3 Binary Images.- 2.3.1 Measurements on Binary Images.- 2.3.2 Shape Descriptors.- 2.4 Binary Mathematical Morphology.- 2.4.1 Opening and Closing Operations.- 2.4.2 Structuring Element Decomposition.- 2.5 Grey Scale Morphology.- 2.6 Global Image Transforms.- 2.6.1 Hough Transform.- 2.6.2 Two-dimensional Discrete Fourier Transform.- 2.7 Texture Analysis.- 2.7.1 Statistical Approaches.- 2.7.2 Co-occurrence Matrix Approach.- 2.7.3 Structural Approaches.- 2.7.4 Morphological Texture Analysis.- 2.8 Implementation Considerations.- 2.8.1 Morphological System Implementation.- 2.9 Commercial Devices.- 2.9.1 Plug-in Boards: Frame-stores.- 2.9.2 Plug-in Boards: Dedicated Function.- 2.9.3 Self-contained Systems.- 2.9.4 Turn-key Systems.- 2.9.5 Software.- 2.10 Further Remarks.- 3 Intelligent Image Processing.- 3.1 Interactive Image Processing.- 3.1.1 Modus Operandi.- 3.1.2 Prototyping Inspection Systems.- 3.1.3 Building Simple Programs.- 3.1.4 Interaction and Prolog.- 3.2 Introducing PrologH-.- 3.3 Review of Prolog.- 3.3.1 Sample Program.- 3.3.2 Sample Queries.- 3.4 The Nature of Prolog+.- 3.5 Prolog+Programs.- 3.5.1 Recognising Bakewell Tarts.- 3.5.2 Recognising Printed Letters.- 3.5.3 Identifying Table Cutlery.- 3.5.4 Analysing all Visible Objects.- 3.5.5 Recognising a Table Place Setting.- 3.6 Abstract Concepts in Prolog+.- 3.6.1 Describing a Simple Package.- 3.6.2 Abstract Spatial Relationships.- 3.6.3 Geometric Figures.- 3.7 Implementation of Prolog+.- 3.7.1 The # Operator.- 3.8 Comments.- 4 Enhanced Intelligent Systems.- 4.1 Prolog+ Environment: A Tool-box for Machine Vision.- 4.1.1 Defining New Predicate Names.- 4.1.2 Default Values for Arguments.- 4.1.3 Useful Operators.- 4.1.4 Program Library.- 4.1.5 Auto-start.- 4.1.6 Interactive Mode.- 4.1.7 User Extendible Pull-down Menus.- Mechanism for Extending Menus.- 4.1.8 Command Keys.- 4.1.9 Graphical Display of a Robot Work Cell.- 4.1.10 Speech Synthesis and Recorded Speech.- 4.1.11 On-line HELP.- 4.1.12 Cursor.- 4.1.13 Automatic Script Generation and Optimisation.- 4.1.14 Linking to Other Programs.- HyperCard Controller for a Flexible Inspection Cell.- 4.2 Understanding Simple Spoken Instructions.- 4.2.1 Speech Recognition.- 4.2.2 Natural Language Understanding.- 4.2.3 Automatically Building a Pull-down Menu.- 4.2.4 Understanding NL Commands for an (X, Y, &3x03D6;)-table.- 4.2.5 Sample Sentences.- 4.2.6 Interpreting the Parser Output.- 4.2.7 Review.- 4.3 Aids for Designing Vision Systems.- 4.3.1 Lighting Advisor.- Stack Structure.- Search Mechanisms.- Remarks About the Lighting Advisor.- 4.3.2 Other Design Aids for Machine Vision.- 4.4 Multi-camera Systems.- 4.4.1 Multiplexed-video Systems.- 4.4.2 Networked Vision Systems.- 4.4.3 Master-Slave System Organisation.- 4.4.4 Remote Queries.- Interactive Operation of the Remote Process.- 4.4.5 Blackboard.- Master and Slave Program Elements.- 4.4.6 Controlling the Master-Slave System.- Starting the System.- Stopping a Slave.- Passing a Message to the Slave.- Receiving Data from a Slave.- Slave Program.- Blackboard (Snapshot of Database, Changing Constantly).- 4.4.7 Crash Recovery.- Programming the Slave from the Master.- 4.5 Comments.- 5 Controlling External Devices.- 5.1 Devices and Signals.- 5.2 Protocols and Signals.- 5.2.1 Interfacing to Commercial Systems.- 5.3 Programmable Logic Controller.- 5.4 General Purpose Interface Unit.- 5.4.1 Motivation for the Design.- 5.4.2 Hardware Organisation.- 5.4.3 Programs.- 5.4.4 Digression on Lighting.- 5.4.5 Languages for Robotics.- 5.5 Flexible Inspection Cell, Design Issues.- 5.5.1 Lighting Arrangement.- 5.5.2 Mechanical Handling.- 5.5.3 Cameras and Lenses.- 5.5.4 MMB-Host Interface Protocol.- 5.5.5 Additional Remarks.- 5.5.6 HyperCard Control Software for the FIC.- 5.6 Prolog+ Predicates for Device Control.- 5.7 System Calibration.- 5.7.1 FIC Calibration Procedure (Overhead Camera).- 5.7.2 Calibration, SCARA and Gantry Robots (Overhead Camera).- 5.7.3 Calibration Procedure (Overhead Narrow-view Camera).- 5.7.4 Calibration Procedure (Side Camera).- 5.8 Picking up a Randomly Placed Object (Overhead Camera).- 5.8.1 Program.- 5.9 Grippers.- 5.9.1 Suction Gripper.- 5.9.2 Magnetic Gripper.- 5.9.3 Multi-Finger Gripper.- 5.9.4 Further Remarks.- 5.10 Summary.- 6 Colour Image Recognition.- 6.1 Introduction.- 6.2 Applications of Coarse Colour Discrimination.- 6.3 Why is a Banana Yellow?.- 6.4 Machines for Colour Discrimination.- 6.4.1 Optical Filters.- 6.4.2 Colour Cameras.- 6.4.3 Light Sources for Colour Vision.- 6.4.4 Colour Standards.- 6.5 Ways of Thinking about Colour.- 6.5.1 Opponent Process Representation of Colour.- 6.5.2 YIQ Colour Representation.- 6.5.3 HSI, Hue Saturation and Intensity.- 6.5.4 RGB Colour Space: Colour Triangle.- 6.5.5 1-Dimensional Histograms of RGB Colour Separations.- 6.5.6 2-Dimensional Scattergrams.- 6.5.7 Colour Scattergrams.- 6.6 Programmable Colour Filter (PCF).- 6.6.1 Implementation of the PCF.- 6.6.2 Programming the PCF.- 6.6.3 Recognising a Single Colour.- 6.6.4 Noise Effects.- 6.6.5 Recognising Multiple Colours.- 6.6.6 Pseudo-Colour Display for the PCF.- 6.6.7 Recent Teaching of the PCF Dominates.- 6.6.8 Prolog+Software for Operating the PCF.- Plot Colour Scattergram.- Draw Colour Triangle Outline.- Clear LUT.- Store Current LUT.- Reload Stored PCF.- Reverting to Monochrome Operation.- 6.6.9 Programming the PCF using the Colour Scattergram.- 6.6.10 Programming the PCF by Image Processing.- 6.6.11 “Hue” PCF.- 6.6.12 Analysing Output of the Hue PCF.- 6.6.13 “Segmented” PCF.- 6.6.14 Measuring Colour Similarity and Saturation.- 6.6.15 Detecting Local Colour Changes.- 6.6.16 Colour Generalisation.- 6.7 Colour Recognition in Prolog+ Programs.- 6.7.1 Counting Coloured Objects.- 6.7.2 Recognising a Polychromatic Logo, Program 1.- 6.7.3 Recognising a Polychromatic Logo, Program 2.- 6.7.4 Recognising a Polychromatic Logo, Program 3.- 6.7.5 Multiple Exemplar Approach to Recognition.- 6.7.6 Learning Proportions of Colours in a Scene.- 6.7.7 Superior Program for Learning Colour Proportions.- 6.7.8 Teaching the PCF by Showing.- 6.7.9 Template Matching of Colour Images.- 6.7.10 Using Colour for Object Orientation.- 6.7.11 Approximating an Image by a Set of Overlapping Discs.- 6.7.12 Interpreting Resistor and Capacitor Colour Codes.- 6.8 Discussion and Conclusions.- 7 Applications of Intelligent Vision.- 7.1 Recognition of Printed Patterns.- 7.1.1 Non-picture Playing Cards.- 7.1.2 “Stars”.- 7.1.3 “Smiley Faces”.- 7.1.4 Alphanumeric Characters.- Program.- Comments.- Logical and Analogue Shape Measurements.- 7.2 Manipulation of Planar Objects.- 7.2.1 Assumptions.- 7.2.2 Significance.- 7.2.3 Simple Shape Measurements.- 7.2.4 Learning and Recognition.- 7.2.5 Program Listing.- 7.2.6 Sample Output of Recognition Phase.- 7.3 Packing and Depletion.- 7.3.1 Geometric Packer Implementation.- 7.3.2 Heuristic Packing Techniques.- Blob Packing.- Polygon Packing.- 7.3.3 Performance Measures.- Predicates.- 7.3.4 Robot Gripper Considerations.- 7.3.5 Packing Scenes with Defective Regions.- 7.3.6 Discussion.- 7.4 Handedness of Mirror-Image Components.- 7.4.1 Handedness and Chirality.- Relating Chirality and Handedness.- 7.4.2 Concavity Trees.- Formal Definition.- Generating Concavity Trees.- Sample Concavity Trees.- Canonical Form of Concavity Trees.- Program to find Chirality.- 7.4.3 Properties of Concavity Trees.- Instability.- 7.4.4 Simpler Tests for Chirality.- Second Program.- Third Program.- Fourth Program.- Fifth Program.- 7.5 Telling the Time.- 7.5.1 Significance.- 7.5.2 Simplifying Assumptions.- 7.5.3 Lighting.- 7.5.4 First Program.- 7.5.5 Other Methods.- 7.5.6 Concluding Remarks.- 7.6 Food and Agricultural Products.- 7.6.1 Objective.- 7.6.2 Industrial Relevance.- 7.6.3 Product Shape, Two-dimensions.- Image Acquisition.- Rectangular and Circular Biscuits.- Slices of Bread.- Locating the Base and Determining Orientation.- Locating Straight Sides.- Measuring Overspill.- Radius of Curvature of Top Edge.- 7.6.4 Analysing the 3D Structure of an Uncut Loaf.- 8 Concluding Remarks.- References.- A Proverbs, Opinions and Folklore.- B Factors to be Considered when Designing a Vision System.- C General Reference Material.- D PIP — Software Implementation of Prolog+.- E Prolog+ and PIP Commands.- Glossary of Terms.- Index of Predicates, Operators and Grammar Rules.