Construction Calculations is a manual that provides end users with a comprehensive guide for many of the formulas, mathematical vectors and conversion factors that are commonly encountered during the design and construction stages of a construction project. It offers readers detailed calculations, applications and examples needed in site work, cost estimation, piping and pipefitting, and project management. The book also serves as a refresher course for some of the formulas and concepts of geometry and trigonometry. The book is divided into sections that present the common components of construction. The first section of the books starts with a refresher discussion of unit and systems measurement; its origin and evolution; the standards of length, mass and capacity; terminology and tables; and notes of metric, U.S, and British units of measurements. The following concepts are presented and discussed throughout the book: Conversion tables and formulas, including the Metric Conversion Law and conversion factors for builders and design professionals Calculations and formulas of geometry, trigonometry and physics in construction Rudiments of excavation, classification, use of material, measurement and payment Soil classification and morphology, including its physicochemical properties Formulas and calculations needed for soil tests and evaluations and for the design of retaining structures Calculations relating to concrete and masonry Calculations of the size/weight of structural steel and other metals Mechanical properties of wood and processing of wood products Calculations relating to sound and thermal transmission Interior finishes, plumbing and HVAC calculations Electrical formulas and calculations Construction managers and engineers, architects, contractors, and beginners in engineering, architecture, and construction will find this practical guide useful for managing all aspects of construction. - Work in and convert between building dimensions, including metric- Built-in right-angle solutions- Areas, volumes, square-ups- Complete stair layouts- Roof, rafter and framing solutions- Circle: arcs, circumference, segments
Section 1
The National Institute of Standards and Testing (NIST)
NIST Handbook 44 - 2007 Edition
1. Introduction
2. Units and Systems of Measurement
3. Standards of Length, Mass, and Capacity or Volume
4. Specialized Use of the Terms “Ton” and “Tonnage”
1. Tables of Metric Units of Measurement
2. Tables of U.S. Units of Measurement
3. Notes on British Units of Measurement
A book on construction calculations that includes references to material dimensions, weight, volume, and conversion factors should introduce the reader to the National Institute of Standards and Testing, generally referred to simply as NIST.
Founded in 1901 under the U.S. Department of Agriculture, NIST is a nonregulatory federal agency whose mission is to “promote U.S. innovation and industrial competitiveness by advancing measurement science, standards and technology in ways that enhance economic security and improve our quality of life.”
NIST maintains four cooperative programs to carry out its mission:
• NIST Laboratories, headquartered in Gaithersburg, Maryland, and a campus in Boulder, Colorado, to research and advance U.S. technology infrastructure.
• The Baldrige National Quality Program to promote excellence in the performance of manufacturing, service, educational and health care industries recognizing excellence in those organizations with its highly prized annual Malcolm Baldrige Award.
• The Hollings Manufacturing Extension Partnership consisting of a nationwide network of local centers that offer technical and business assistance to small manufacturers
• The Technology Innovations Program providing cost-shared awards to industry, academia, and key organizations that meet national and societal needs.
The NIST Handbook 44 was first published in 1949 and is issued yearly at the Annual Meeting of the National Conference on Weights and Measures.
The Table of Contents of Handbook 44 reflects the type of information contained in this volume, the contents of which hold much value for the design and construction industry. Copies of the entire handbook can be downloaded from the NIST website.
I have chosen to include only Appendix B: Units and Systems of Measurement—Their Origin, Development, and Present Status, and Appendix C: General Tables of Units of Measurement, which seem to be a fitting start to a book on construction calculations.
Appendix B: Units and Systems of Measurement: Their Origin, Development, and Present Status
1 Introduction
The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) (formerly the National Bureau of Standards) was established by Act of Congress in 1901 to serve as a national scientific laboratory in the physical sciences, and to provide fundamental measurement standards for science and industry. In carrying out these related functions, the Institute conducts research and development in many fields of physics, mathematics, chemistry, and engineering. At the time of its founding, the Institute had custody of two primary standards—the meter bar for length and the kilogram cylinder for mass. With the phenomenal growth of science and technology over the past century, the Institute has become a major research institution concerned not only with everyday weights and measures, but also with hundreds of other scientific and engineering standards that are necessary to the industrial progress of the nation. Nevertheless, the country still looks to NIST for information on the units of measurement, particularly their definitions and equivalents.
The subject of measurement systems and units can be treated from several different standpoints. Scientists and engineers are interested in the methods by which precision measurements are made. State weights and measures officials are concerned with laws and regulations that assure equity in the marketplace, protect public health and safety, and with methods for verifying commercial weighing and measuring devices. But a vastly larger group of people is interested in some general knowledge of the origin and development of measurement systems, of the present status of units and standards, and of miscellaneous facts that will be useful in everyday life. This material has been prepared to supply that information on measurement systems and units that experience has shown to be the common subject of inquiry.
2 Units and Systems of Measurement
The expression “weights and measures” is often used to refer to measurements of length, mass, and capacity or volume, thus excluding such quantities as electrical and time measurements and thermometry. This section on units and measurement systems presents some fundamental information to clarify the concepts of this subject and to eliminate erroneous and misleading use of terms.
It is essential that the distinction between the terms “units” and “standards” be established and kept in mind.
A unit is a special quantity in terms of which other quantities are expressed. In general, a unit is fixed by definition and is independent of such physical conditions as temperature. Examples: the meter, the liter, the gram, the yard, the pound, the gallon.
A standard is a physical realization or representation of a unit. In general, it is not entirely independent of physical conditions, and it is a representation of the unit only under specified conditions. For example, a meter standard has a length of one meter when at some definite temperature and supported in a certain manner. If supported in a different manner, it might have to be at a different temperature to have a length of one meter.
2.1 Origin and Early History of Units and Standards
2.1.1 General Survey of Early History of Measurement Systems
Weights and measures were among the earliest tools invented by man. Primitive societies needed rudimentary measures for many tasks: constructing dwellings of an appropriate size and shape, fashioning clothing, or bartering food or raw materials.
Man understandably turned first to parts of the body and the natural surroundings for measuring instruments. Early Babylonian and Egyptian records and the Bible indicate that length was first measured with the forearm, hand, or finger and that time was measured by the periods of the sun, moon, and other heavenly bodies. When it was necessary to compare the capacities of containers such as gourds or clay or metal vessels, they were filled with plant seeds which were then counted to measure the volumes. When means for weighing were invented, seeds and stones served as standards. For instance, the “carat,” still used as a unit for gems, was derived from the carob seed.
Our present knowledge of early weights and measures comes from many sources. Archaeologists have recovered some rather early standards and preserved them in museums. The comparison of the dimensions of buildings with the descriptions of contemporary writers is another source of information. An interesting example of this is the comparison of the dimensions of the Greek Parthenon with the description given by Plutarch from which a fairly accurate idea of the size of the Attic foot is obtained. In some cases, we have only plausible theories and we must sometimes select the interpretation to be given to the evidence.
For example, does the fact that the length of the double-cubit of early Babylonia was equal (within two parts per thousand) to the length of the seconds pendulum at Babylon suggest a scientific knowledge of the pendulum at a very early date, or do we merely have a curious coincidence? By studying the evidence given by all available sources, and by correlating the relevant facts, we obtain some idea of the origin and development of the units. We find that they have changed more or less gradually with the passing of time in a complex manner because of a great variety of modifying influences. We find the units modified and grouped into measurement systems: The Babylonian system, the Egyptian system, the Phileterian system of the Ptolemaic age, the Olympic system of Greece, the Roman system, and the British system, to mention only a few.
2.1.2 Origin and Development of Some Common Customary Units
The origin and development of units of measurement has been investigated in considerable detail and a number of books have been written on the subject. It is only possible to give here, somewhat sketchily, the story about a few units.
Units of length: The cubit was the first recorded unit used by ancient peoples to measure length. There were several cubits of different magnitudes that were used. The common cubit was the length of the forearm from the elbow to the tip of the middle finger. It was divided into the span of the hand (one-half cubit), the palm or width of the hand (one sixth), and the digit or width of a finger (one twenty-fourth). The Royal or Sacred Cubit, which was 7 palms or 28 digits long, was used in constructing buildings and monuments and in surveying. The inch, foot, and yard evolved from these units through a complicated transformation not yet fully understood. Some believe they evolved from cubic measures; others...
| Erscheint lt. Verlag | 19.9.2011 |
|---|---|
| Sprache | englisch |
| Themenwelt | Mathematik / Informatik ► Mathematik ► Algebra |
| Mathematik / Informatik ► Mathematik ► Angewandte Mathematik | |
| Technik ► Architektur | |
| Technik ► Bauwesen | |
| ISBN-10 | 0-12-382244-0 / 0123822440 |
| ISBN-13 | 978-0-12-382244-4 / 9780123822444 |
| Haben Sie eine Frage zum Produkt? |
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