Introduction to CDMA Wireless Communications (eBook)

Front Cover 1
Introduction to CDMA Wireless Communications 4
Copyright Page 5
Contents 6
Preface 14
Chapter 1 Introduction 18
1.1 Development of CDMA Wireless Communications 18
1.2 Basic digital communication system 19
1.3 Sources of noise 21
1.4 Properties of the probability density functions 22
1.5 Examples of probability distributions 23
1.5.1 Uniform distribution 23
1.5.2 Gaussian (normal) distribution 24
1.5.3 Rayleigh and Rice distributions 27
1.5.4 Binomial distribution 30
1.5.5 Chi-square distribution 30
1.6 Equivalent noise bandwidth 31
1.7 Linear filtering of white noise 33
1.7.1 White noise differentiation 33
1.7.2 White noise integration 34
1.8 Narrowband Gaussian noise 35
1.9 Sinusoidal signal plus narrowband noise 37
1.10 Fourier analysis 38
1.10.1 Fourier series 38
1.10.2 Fourier transform 39
1.10.3 Fast Fourier transform 40
1.11 Signals convolution 53
1.12 Signals deconvolution 56
1.13 Signals correlation 57
1.14 Spectral density of discrete signals 61
1.15 Summary 65
Problems 65
Bibliography 66
Appendix 1.A 67
Chapter 2 Introduction to Digital Communications 68
2.1 Introduction 68
2.2 Review of digital transmission theory 69
2.2.1 Data transmission codes 70
2.2.2 General theory of digital transmission 73
2.2.3 Statistical detection theory for binary transmission 79
2.2.4 Optimum threshold voltage 82
2.2.5 Minimum probability of error 82
2.2.6 Principles of matched filtering 84
2.2.7 Matched filter impulse response h(t) 87
2.2.8 Probability of error at the output of matched filter 90
2.2.9 Binary Nyquist pulse signalling 92
2.3 Channel equalizing 96
2.3.1 Linear equalizers 98
2.3.2 Non-linear equalizers 108
2.4 Digital modulation/demodulation schemes used in CDMA systems 110
2.4.1 Quadrature/Offset Phase Shift Keying (QPSK/OQPSK) modulation system 110
2.5 RAKE receivers 120
2.6 Channel forward error correction coding 123
2.6.1 The convolutional encoder 124
2.6.2 Convolutional coding representation 126
2.6.3 Viterbi decoding algorithm 130
2.6.4 Probability of error using VA decoding 135
2.6.5 Turbo encoding and decoding 137
2.6.6 Turbo code construction 138
2.6.7 Turbo code interleavers 141
2.6.8 Turbo code tail-biting 142
2.6.9 Turbo decoding 146
2.6.10 The MAP algorithm 147
2.7 Channel capacity 159
2.8 Ideal communication system 163
2.9 Summary 164
Laboratory Sessions 165
Laboratory session I: Matched filtering 165
Laboratory session II: Signal equalization 166
Problems 167
References 169
Chapter 3 Fundamentals of Spread-Spectrum Techniques 170
3.1 Historical background 170
3.2 Benefits of spread-spectrum technology 171
3.2.1 Avoiding interception 171
3.2.2 Privacy of transmission 172
3.2.3 Resistance to fading 172
3.2.4 Accurate low power position finding 172
3.2.5 Improved multiple access scheme 173
3.3 Principles of spread-spectrum communications (Scholtz, 1977) 173
3.4 Most common types of spread-spectrum systems 177
3.4.1 DS-SS systems 178
3.4.2 Frequency hopping spread-spectrum system 181
3.4.3 Hybrid DS/FH systems 184
3.5 Processing gain 184
3.6 Correlation functions (Sarwate and Pursley, 1980) 186
3.6.1 Periodic correlation function 186
3.6.2 Aperiodic correlation function 190
3.6.3 Even and odd cross-correlation function 193
3.6.4 The Merit Factor (Golay, 1982) 197
3.6.5 Interference rejection capability 198
3.7 Performance of spread-spectrum systems (Pursley, 1977) 203
3.8 Summary 206
Laboratory session III: Introduction to spread-spectrum techniques 207
Problems 208
References 210
Chapter 4 Pseudo-Random Code Sequences for Spread-Spectrum Systems 212
4.1 Introduction 212
4.2 Basic Algebra concepts 213
4.3 Arithmetic of binary polynomial 215
4.4 Computing elements of GF(2[sup(m)]) 219
4.5 Binary pseudo-random sequences 220
4.5.1 Generation of binary pseudo-random sequences 220
4.5.2 Maximal-length sequences (m-sequences) 228
4.5.3 Decimation of m-sequences 230
4.5.4 Preferred pairs of m-sequences 233
4.5.5 Gold sequences 235
4.5.6 Kasami sequences 238
4.5.7 Walsh sequences 239
4.5.8 Multi-rate orthogonal codes 241
4.6 Complex sequences 243
4.6.1 Quadriphase sequences 244
4.6.2 Polyphase sequences 263
4.7 Summary 266
Problems 266
References 267
Chapter 5 Time Synchronization of Spread-Spectrum Systems 270
5.1 Introduction 270
5.2 Code acquisition 272
5.2.1 Optimum acquisition 272
5.2.2 Sub-optimum acquisition system 272
5.2.3 Search strategies 274
5.3 Analysis of serial acquisition system in AWGN channel 275
5.3.1 Statistical analysis of the mean and variance acquisition time for serial acquisition system 278
5.3.2 The Doppler effect on code acquisition 282
5.3.3 Probabilities of detection and false alarm 286
5.4 Sequential detection acquisition system 290
5.5 Matched filter acquisition system 294
5.6 Effects of frequency errors on the acquisition detector performance 298
5.7 Code tracking in AWGN channels 299
5.7.1 Optimum code tracking 300
5.7.2 Baseband early–late tracking loop 301
5.7.3 Baseband early–late tracking loop in noiseless channels 304
5.7.4 Baseband early–late tracking loop in AWGN channel 305
5.7.5 Noncoherent early–late tracking loop 308
5.7.6 Noncoherent early–late noiseless tracking loop 310
5.7.7 Noncoherent early–late tracking loop in AWGN channel 312
5.8 & #964
5.8.1 Noncoherent & #964
5.8.2 Noncoherent & #964
5.9 Time synchronization of spread-spectrum systems in mobile fading channels 318
5.9.1 Code acquisition in fading channels 318
5.9.2 Code tracking in fading channels 327
5.10 Summary 338
Problems 340
References 341
Appendix 5.A 343
Appendix 5.B 348
Chapter 6 Cellular Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) Principles 354
6.1 Wideband mobile channel 355
6.1.1 Propagation of radio waves 356
6.1.2 Statistics of mobile radio channel 360
6.1.3 Path losses 361
6.1.4 Prediction of path loss 363
6.2 The Cellular CDMA system 367
6.2.1 The cellular concept 367
6.2.2 The Near–Far effect 368
6.2.3 Power control schemes 369
6.3 Interference considerations 370
6.3.1 Interference on the reverse link 370
6.3.2 The inter cell interference (Heath and Newson, 1992 Newson, 1992
6.3.3 Interference on the forward link 374
6.4 Single-user receiver in a multi-user channel 374
6.4.1 The multi-user channel 374
6.4.2 The conventional receiver 376
6.5 Improved single-user receivers 379
6.5.1 Introduction 379
6.5.2 Modified conventional receivers schemes 381
6.6 Adaptive single-user receivers 387
6.6.1 The chip-rate linear adaptive receivers 389
6.6.2 Fractionally spaced adaptive receivers 391
6.6.3 Adaptive receiver for multipath fading channel 397
6.7 CDMA system capacity 399
6.7.1 Single cell capacity with ideal power control 399
6.7.2 Single cell capacity improvement methods (Gilhousen et al., 1991) 404
6.8 Capacity of cellular CDMA system 406
6.8.1 Capacity of the uplink (reverse link) 406
6.9 System Link Outage 407
6.9.1 Uplink outage 407
6.9.2 Downlink (forward link) outage 409
6.10 Effects of power control errors on link capacity (Leung, 1996 Viterbi et al., 1993
6.10.1 Power control errors in the uplink 411
6.10.2 Pilot signal interference on the down link 411
6.11 Call blocking probability on the uplink 412
6.12 Summary 413
Problems 414
References 415
Chapter 7 Multi-User Detection in CDMA Cellular Radio 418
7.1 Introduction 418
7.2 Optimal multi-user CDMA detection 419
7.2.1 Optimum synchronous detector 422
7.2.2 Optimum asynchronous detector 428
7.3 Linear sub-optimal detectors 433
7.3.1 Decorrelator detector 433
7.3.2 Minimum Mean Square Error (MMSE) detection 437
7.4 Interference combat schemes 440
7.4.1 Smart antennas 441
7.4.2 Space diversity algorithms (Alamouti, 1998) 444
7.4.3 Beam forming techniques 454
7.4.4 Bell Labs Layered Space–Time (BLAST) Architectures 459
7.5 Interference Cancellation (IC) Techniques 470
7.5.1 Successive Interference Cancellation (SIC) 471
7.5.2 Parallel Interference Cancellation (PIC) 474
7.5.3 Hybrid successive and parallel cancellation 475
7.5.4 Iterative (Turbo) interference cancellation 478
7.6 Summary 480
Problems 482
References 485
Appendix 7.A 486
Chapter 8 CDMA Wireless Communication Standards 490
8.1 Introduction 490
8.2 IS-95A standard 492
8.3 IS-95A Forward link channels (IS-95) 492
8.3.1 Pilot channel 494
8.3.2 Sync channel 496
8.3.3 Paging channel 502
8.3.4 Traffic channel frame structure 506
8.3.5 Traffic channel signal processing 508
8.3.6 Traffic channel signalling 511
8.4 IS-95A Reverse link channels 513
8.4.1 Traffic channel coding 514
8.4.2 Reverse link long code masking 515
8.4.3 Reverse link interleaving 515
8.4.4 Link power control 518
8.4.5 Traffic channel modulation 519
8.4.6 Link frame structures 520
8.4.7 Traffic channel preamble 520
8.4.8 Signalling on the reverse Traffic channel 521
8.5 IS-95A Mobility issues 521
8.5.1 IS-95A Registration 521
8.5.2 Handoff procedures 522
8.6 Evolution of IS-95A standards to IS-95B (Kumar and Nanda, 1999) 523
8.6.1 Burst-mode high rate data 524
8.6.2 MAC sub-layer protocol services 525
8.6.3 IS-95B system performance trade-offs 525
8.7 cdma2000 standards (IS-2000 Kinsely et al., 1998)
8.7.1 Introduction 526
8.7.2 The spreading chip rates 529
8.7.3 The reverse link radio configurations 530
8.7.4 The long code generator 530
8.7.5 Baseband filtering 532
8.7.6 Reverse link frames 532
8.7.7 Supplemental code channel (RC3–RC6) 533
8.7.8 Supplemental code channel (RC1–RC2) 534
8.7.9 Complex spreading and modulation system 537
8.7.10 Reverse link channels' headers 539
8.7.11 Error correction coding in the reverse channels 539
8.7.12 Reverse channels block Interleaving 540
8.7.13 Forward channels' headers 541
8.7.14 Transmit diversity over forward link 543
8.7.15 cdma2000 Revisions 547
8.8 Universal Mobile Telecommunications Services (UMTS) (3GPP TS25.215, 2002 3GPP TS25.301, 2002
8.8.1 Basic system architecture 568
8.8.2 Access network UTRAN 570
8.8.3 Core network CN 571
8.8.4 Physical layer channels 574
8.9 Physical channels spreading and frame structures (3GPP TS25.215, 2002) 579
8.9.1 Reverse link dedicated physical data/control channels 579
8.9.2 Orthogonal variable spreading factor and scrambling codes 581
8.9.3 Reverse link physical common packet channels 582
8.9.4 Physical random access channel 584
8.10 Forward link physical channels (3GPP TS25.211, 2002) 585
8.10.1 Dedicated forward link physical channels 585
8.10.2 Common pilot channel 587
8.10.3 Synchronization channel 587
8.10.4 Primary common control physical channel 588
8.10.5 Secondary common control physical channel 589
8.10.6 Physical downlink shared channel 589
8.10.7 Paging indicator channel 589
8.10.8 Acquisition indicator channel 591
8.11 Rate matching (3GPP TS25.212, 2002) 592
8.12 Packet transmission summary 593
8.13 Physical channels carrier modulation 593
8.14 Service multiplexing on the reverse link physical channels 593
8.15 Forward link multiplexing 595
8.16 Power control in UTRAN FDD (3GPP TS25.214, 2002) 596
8.16.1 Reverse link power control 597
8.16.2 Forward link power control 598
8.17 Mobility procedures in UMTS 599
8.17.1 Handoff procedures 599
8.17.2 Location management procedures 600
8.18 Evolution of the WCDMA standard 600
8.19 High-speed downlink packet access (Holma and Toskala, 2005 Kaaranen et al., 2005
8.19.1 HSDPA channels 603
8.19.2 HSDPA protocol architecture 605
8.19.3 HSDPA algorithm 606
8.20 High-speed uplink packet access (3GPP TS25.896, 2004) 607
8.20.1 UTRAN architecture with HSUPA protocol (3GPP TS25.309, 2006) 608
8.20.2 The HSUPA concept 609
8.20.3 HSUPA algorithm 610
8.20.4 HSUPA physical channels 612
8.20.5 E-DCH spreading and modulation (3GPP TS25.213, 2006) 612
8.21 Summary 615
8.22 List of Standards 616
8.23 3G Project Partner Specifications 616
References 617
Appendix 8.A 619
Appendix 8.B 621
Index 624
A 624
B 624
C 624
D 625
E 625
F 626
G 626
H 626
I 626
J 627
K 627
L 627
M 627
N 628
O 628
P 628
Q 629
R 629
S 629
T 630
U 631
V 631
W 631
Z 631