DNA and Biotechnology - Molly Fitzgerald-Hayes, Frieda Reichsman

DNA and Biotechnology (eBook)

Molly Fitzgerald-Hayes, Frieda Reichsman (Autoren)

eBook Download: EPUB

2009 | 3. Auflage
400 Seiten
Elsevier Science (Verlag)
978-0-08-091635-4 (ISBN)

Appropriate for a wide range of disciplines, from biology to non-biology, law and nursing majors, DNA and Biotechnology uses a straightforward and comprehensive writing style that gives the educated layperson a survey of DNA by presenting a brief history of genetics, a clear outline of techniques that are in use, and highlights of breakthroughs in hot topic scientific discoveries.

Engaging and straightforward scientific writing style Comprehensive forensics chapter Parallel Pedagogic material designed to help both readers and teachers. Highlights in the latest scientific discoveries Outstanding full-color illustration that walk reader through complex concepts

Appropriate for a wide range of disciplines, from biology to non-biology, law and nursing majors, DNA and Biotechnology uses a straightforward and comprehensive writing style that gives the educated layperson a survey of DNA by presenting a brief history of genetics, a clear outline of techniques that are in use, and highlights of breakthroughs in hot topic scientific discoveries. - Engaging and straightforward scientific writing style- Comprehensive forensics chapter- Parallel Pedagogic material designed to help both readers and teachers- Highlights in the latest scientific discoveries- Outstanding full-color illustration that walk reader through complex concepts

Front Cover 1
DNA and Biotechnology 4
Copyright Page 5
Contents 6
Acknowledgments 8
Introduction 10
1 The Roots of DNA Research 12
LOOKING AHEAD 12
INTRODUCTION 13
DEVELOPING A THEORY OF INHERITANCE 14
RELATING DNA TO HEREDITY 20
SUMMARY 24
REVIEW 25
ADDITIONAL READING 25
WEB SITES 25
2 The DNA Double Helix 26
LOOKING AHEAD 27
INTRODUCTION 27
THE STRUCTURE OF DNA 27
DNA REPLICATION 38
SUMMARY 47
REVIEW 47
ADDITIONAL READING 48
WEB SITES 48
3 DNA in Action 50
LOOKING AHEAD 51
INTRODUCTION 51
FUNDAMENTAL SCIENCE CONNECTS DNA AND TRAITS 52
FRANCIS CRICK STARTS TO UNRAVEL THE GENETIC CODE 61
GENE EXPRESSION 64
RNA POLYMERASES COPY DNA INTO RNA 67
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS REQUIRES MRNA AND RIBOSOMES 76
EUKARYOTIC GENE REGULATION 84
SUMMARY 85
REVIEW 86
FOR ADDITIONAL READING 87
WEB SITES 87
4 Tools of the DNA Trade 88
LOOKING AHEAD 88
INTRODUCTION 89
TOOLS OF GENETIC ENGINEERING 89
THE ADVENT OF RECOMBINANT DNA EXPERIMENTS 102
SUMMARY 108
REVIEW 109
ADDITIONAL READING 110
WEB SITES 110
5 Working with DNA 112
LOOKING AHEAD 113
INTRODUCTION 113
THE BIOCHEMISTRY OF RECOMBINANT GENE EXPRESSION 113
DNA LIBRARIES STORE CLONED DNA SEQUENCES 124
EXPRESSING CLONED GENES 133
THE POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION (PCR) 134
SUMMARY 136
REVIEW 136
ADDITIONAL READING 137
6 Human Genomics 138
LOOKING AHEAD 139
INTRODUCTION 139
MODEL ORGANISMS ARE FUNDAMENTAL TO GENOMICS 140
EARLY HUMAN GENOME MAPS 145
DETERMINING THE DNA SEQUENCE OF THE ENTIRE HUMAN GENOME 146
WHAT WE LEARNED FROM THE HUMAN GENOME SEQUENCE 150
NINETY-EIGHT PERCENT OF THE HUMAN GENOME IS NONCODING DNA 153
INDIVIDUAL GENOMES AND GENETIC VARIATION 154
HUMAN AND CHIMPANZEE DNA: WHAT MAKES US HUMAN? 155
WHAT WE STILL NEED TO LEARN ABOUT THE HUMAN GENOME 156
SUMMARY 157
REVIEW 158
ADDITIONAL READING 158
WEB SITE 158
7 Bioinformatics 160
LOOKING AHEAD 161
INTRODUCTION 161
AN EXPLOSION OF DATA FUELED THE RISE OF BIOINFORMATICS 161
SEQUENCE SIMILARITIES SUGGEST PROTEIN FUNCTION AND EVOLUTIONARY RELATIONSHIPS 162
BIOLOGICAL DATA ARE ORGANIZED IN COMPUTER DATABASES 165
USING BIOINFORMATICS DATABASES 171
APPLIED BIOINFORMATICS 176
SUMMARY 181
REVIEW 181
ADDITIONAL READING 182
WEB SITES 182
8 DNA Forensics 184
LOOKING AHEAD 184
INTRODUCTION 185
FORENSIC DNA TESTING: A POWERFUL AND VERSATILE TOOL 185
USING DNA ANALYSIS TO RECONSTRUCT THE ORIGINS OF THE HUMAN RACE 195
SUMMARY 199
REVIEW 200
ADDITIONAL READING 201
9 Exploring Cell Fate 202
LOOKING AHEAD 203
INTRODUCTION 203
FATE 1: CELL DIVISION AND REPRODUCTION 204
CANCER CELLS GO TO THE "DARK SIDE" AND EVADE CELL CYCLE CONTROL 208
CELL-CYCLE MACHINE: CYCLINS AND CYCLIN-DEPENDENT KINASES PROMOTE MITOSIS 211
GENES CONTROLLING CANCER: TUMOR SUPPRESSOR GENES AND ONCOGENES 213
CLINICAL TRIALS TO TEST HUMAN CANCER TREATMENTS 221
FATE 2: DEVELOPMENT OF SPECIALIZED CELLS 222
FATE 3: APOPTOSIS IS PROGRAMMED CELL DEATH 224
SUMMARY 225
REVIEW 225
ADDITIONAL READING 226
WEB SITES 226
10 Human Genetic Diseases 228
LOOKING AHEAD 229
INTRODUCTION 229
GENETIC DISEASES ARE CAUSED BY MUTANT GENES 229
10,000 HUMAN GENES POTENTIALLY CAUSE GENETIC DISEASES 230
INCONSISTENT GENETIC TESTING LAWS 233
GENETIC DISEASES ARE FREQUENTLY CAUSED BY MORE THAN ONE GENE 234
HUMAN CHROMOSOME KARYOTYPES REVEAL GENETIC DISEASES 238
COMPARISON OF HUMAN GENOMES REVEALS IMPORTANT DNA DIFFERENCES 241
CARRIERS OF GENETIC DISEASES HAVE A MUTANT GENE BUT DO NOT GET SICK 244
AMERICANS SEEK INFORMATION ON GENES, HEALTH, AND BIOMEDICAL RESEARCH 249
SUMMARY 251
REVIEW 251
ADDITIONAL READING 251
WEB SITES 251
11 Gene Therapy 254
LOOKING AHEAD 254
INTRODUCTION 255
GENE THERAPY: A METHOD TO RESCUE MUTANT GENES 256
POSSIBLE RISKS: THE HUMAN SIDE OF GENE THERAPY 261
SUCCESSFUL GENE THERAPY TREATMENTS FOR HUMAN GENETIC DISEASES 263
RNAi: THE FUTURE OF GENE THERAPY? 270
ENZYME REPLACEMENT THERAPY: AN ALTERNATIVE TO GENE THERAPY? 272
SUMMARY 273
REVIEW 274
ADDITIONAL READING 274
WEB SITES 275
12 Stem Cell Research 276
LOOKING AHEAD 276
INTRODUCTION 277
STEM CELLS GENERATE NEW TYPES OF SPECIALIZED CELLS 277
THE POTENTIAL AND THE PROBLEMS OF EMBRYONIC STEM CELLS 281
REPROGRAMMED ADULT CELLS REGAIN POTENTIAL 286
INDUCED PLURIPOTENT STEM CELLS 289
EPIGENETIC CHANGES IN GENOME REPROGRAMMING 289
SUMMARY 295
REVIEW 295
ADDITIONAL READING 296
WEB SITES 296
13 Pharmaceutical Biotechnology 298
LOOKING AHEAD 298
INTRODUCTION 299
PERSONALIZED MEDICINE: DREAM OR REALITY? 301
DRUG DISCOVERY AND DEVELOPMENT 305
LAB ON A CHIP TECHNOLOGY 309
NANOTECHNOLOGY 312
NANOMEDICINE 315
FOUR-DIMENSIONAL MICROSCOPE REVOLUTIONIZES OUR VIEW 317
DNA COMPUTERS 318
SUMMARY 319
REVIEW 320
ADDITIONAL READING 320
WEB SITES 320
14 Animal Biotechnology 322
LOOKING AHEAD 322
INTRODUCTION 323
TRANSGENIC ANIMALS ARE GENETICALLY ALTERED 323
PRODUCTS FROM TRANSGENIC ANIMALS: BIOPHARMING 330
XENOTRANSPLANTATION 334
ANIMAL CLONING 336
SUMMARY 339
REVIEW 339
ADDITIONAL READING 340
WEB SITES 340
15 Agricultural Biotechnology 342
LOOKING AHEAD 342
INTRODUCTION 343
AGRICULTURAL BIOTECHNOLOGIES 344
INSERTING GENES INTO PLANTS 345
SHOOTING GENES INTO CELLS 346
HOW AGRICULTURAL BIOTECHNOLOGY IS REGULATED IN THE UNITED STATES 348
WHAT HAS CAUSED RESISTANCE TO AGBIOTECH IN EUROPE? 348
NEW GENES IN THE FIELDS 348
BENEFITS OF GM CROPS 350
BIOTECHNOLOGY TOOLS HELP DIAGNOSE PLANT DISEASES AND DETECT TRANSGENES 352
BIOCONTROL ALTERNATIVES TO PESTICIDES AND FERTILIZERS 353
TERMINATOR TECHNOLOGY: ARE THE GM SEED COMPANIES EVIL OR PRUDENT? 353
BIOFUELS 355
DEVELOPING COUNTRIES 358
SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE 359
SUMMARY 359
REVIEW 360
ADDITIONAL READING 360
WEB SITES 360
16 Genes and Race 362
LOOKING AHEAD 362
INTRODUCTION 363
THE HISTORY OF RACE 364
THE GENETICS OF PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS 365
CONTROVERSIES IN HEALTH, MEDICINE, AND THE IQ TEST 368
GENES AND THE IMPACT OF ENVIRONMENT 371
WHAT CAUSES GENETIC DISEASES TO PREDOMINATE IN CERTAIN HUMAN POPULATIONS? 373
THE CONCEPTS OF RACE AND INTELLIGENCE 377
SUMMARY 378
REVIEW QUESTIONS 378
ADDITIONAL READING 378
WEB SITES 379
Glossary 380
Index 392

Chapter 2. The DNA Double Helix

Nanomaterials: Golden Handshake

Nature: News and Views, January 30, 2008

By John C. Crocker

Three-dimensional nanoparticle arrays are likely to be the foundation of future optical and electronic materials. A promising way to assemble them is through the transient pairings of complementary DNA strands.

One of the staple concepts of nanotechnology is that of “growing” useful materials or devices by coaxing a random mixture of microscopic parts to assemble spontaneously into a desired structure. Versatile self-assembly schemes have been demonstrated that use DNA as the primary building material…. Two research teams have built on the successes with DNA to aid the self-assembly of gold nanoparticles. Their technique should also work for other varieties of technologically exciting nanoparticles.

Progress in achieving the directed self-assembly of nanoparticles had been elusive, owing to one potentially daunting requirement: selective adhesion. Each microscopic part must be engineered so that it sticks only to the others it should abut in the desired final structure…

This is where DNA comes into its own. Particles carrying complementary strands of DNA selectively adhere to each other when the strands “hybridize” to form the familiar DNA double helix. The final architecture is thus determined not by chemistry or charge, but by the lengths and nucleotide sequences of the DNA strands. That promises a versatile assembly scheme that might be used with particles of nearly any material to fabricate nanocomposites or “metamaterials” with unusual electronic and optical properties. The applications of such materials might include high-efficiency solar panels and lasers, super-resolution microscopes—and even coatings to render objects invisible.

More than 50 years after the discovery of the DNA double helix, our knowledge of the structure of DNA continues to pay off in ways that even Watson and Crick could not have dreamed of in 1953. Now, almost a decade into the twenty-first century, scientists worldwide are using the unique properties of DNA structure, including its ability to store information in the double helix, for new and amazing applications in science and biomedical research. DNA is being used to assemble individual atoms into designer molecules using nanotechnology. Scientists are learning how to assemble molecules with some amazing properties, from fibers that are hundreds of times as strong as steel yet weigh one-sixth as much, to nanofactories that can assemble nearly anything, from a new iPod to the clothes you wear, starting with individual atoms.

Nanomaterials: Golden Handshake describes how the structure of DNA is already playing a novel role in the development of these futuristic materials. In this chapter, we’ll explore how the structure of DNA was determined, a puzzle that was solved only by interpreting and integrating data from several different scientific fields. This historic achievement was accomplished by two scientists who juggled the scientific puzzle pieces in their minds (and with cardboard cutouts), but who did not actually perform a single hands-on experiment with DNA.

Looking Ahead

Determining the structure of DNA was one of the major scientific achievements of the twentieth century. Knowing the structure of DNA gave scientists insight into how heredity works and made the revolution in molecular biology and DNA technology possible. Moreover, the structure of DNA had an enormous impact on our understanding of gene function and DNA replication in cells. On completing this chapter, you should be able to do the following:

• Recognize the three fundamental building blocks of nucleotides used to assemble DNA.

• Describe how sugar and phosphate groups link to each other to form the “backbone” of the DNA molecule.

• Summarize Erwin Chargaff’s findings, and indicate why they were important in solving the puzzle of DNA structure.

• Discuss the different contributions of Franklin, Wilkins, Watson, and Crick in determining the structure of DNA.

• Explain what is meant by semiconservative DNA replication.

• Describe the important functional characteristics of the DNA polymerase enzymes involved in duplicating genome DNA.

• Use your newly acquired DNA vocabulary to read with understanding about DNA-related topics online (google “DNA”), and expand your confidence in learning about DNA.

Introduction

By the 1950s, it was becoming increasingly clear to the scientific community that the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) molecule is the basis of genetic heredity. It is hard to believe these days, but at the time, very little was known about DNA structure. Scientists realized that they needed to know the molecular structure of DNA because the structure of the DNA molecule might shed light on the hereditary process; also, understanding DNA structure might explain how the molecule duplicates during cell reproduction. The processes of genetic heredity and cellular reproduction are among the most fundamental and important events in biology, and the quest for this knowledge started a race to figure out what a DNA molecule actually looks like.

During the 1940s, top scientists worldwide were studying the chemical characteristics of DNA, work that was a critical step to prepare for understanding the three-dimensional structures of biological macromolecules like proteins and DNA. In fact, world-famous scientist Linus Pauling, then a professor at the California Institute of Technology, used x-ray crystallography to solve the structures of large proteins in a series of cutting-edge papers published in 1951. At that time, the race was on among scientists to determine the structure of DNA based on what was known about its chemical and physical characteristics. The race included researchers James Watson and Francis Crick, who determined the structure of DNA and in so doing not only gained international fame but also opened a door to the molecular investigation of heredity. As this chapter will show, the work of Watson and Crick was the jumping-off point for the science behind DNA and biotechnology.

The Structure of DNA

Establishing the structure of DNA was one of the major achievements of the twentieth century. Not only did it yield myriad practical benefits, but it also gave scientists the philosophical pride of understanding how heredity works. Biology has many bedrock principles—for example, the cellular basis of living things, the germ theory of disease, and the process of evolution are three—and the chemical basis of heredity is another. Unlocking the secret of DNA was the key to understanding this principle.

DNA is Constructed from Nucleotide Units

Although the structure of DNA was unknown in the 1940s, the basic chemical components of DNA had been studied for two decades. In the 1920s, Phoebus A. T. Levene determined the chemistry of nucleic acids. Working with his colleagues at Rockefeller Institute in New York City, Levene studied two types of nucleic acid—ribonucleic acid (RNA) and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)—isolated from yeast cells and animal thymus tissue. Levene’s analyses revealed three fundamental components in both types of nucleic acids: (1) a five-carbon sugar, which could be either ribose (in RNA) or deoxyribose (in DNA); (2) phosphate, a chemical group derived from phosphoric acid molecules; and (3) four different compounds containing nitrogen (Figure 2.1).

Figure 2.1

Research revealed the fundamental components of nucleic acids. Research in the 1940s by Phoebus Levene and colleagues revealed the three fundamental components of both types of nucleic acids: phosphate, that is, a chemical group derived from phosphoric acid molecules, a five-carbon sugar, which could be either ribose (in RNA, not shown) or deoxyribose (in DNA), and four different compounds containing nitrogen and having the chemical properties of bases (A, G, C, and T).

Because of their nitrogen content and basic qualities, the four nitrogenous compounds are simply referred to as bases. In DNA, the four most common bases are adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G), and cytosine (C). RNA, the other important nucleic acid in cells, contains the A, G, and C bases, but a base called uracil (U) replaces thymine (T). The adenine (A) and guanine (G) bases are double-ring molecules called purines, whereas the cytosine (C), thymine (T), and uracil (U) bases are single-ring molecules called pyrimidines.

Units called nucleotides are the basic building blocks of DNA and RNA. A nucleotide consists of a base, a sugar, and a phosphate group. The identity of the base is the only feature that distinguishes one DNA nucleotide from another, or one RNA nucleotide from another.

Levene concluded that DNA is composed of three essential components that form units, which are in turn strung together to form a long DNA chain. In contemporary biochemical terms, the units are called nucleotides. In DNA, each nucleotide consists of a deoxyribose sugar attached to a phosphate group and to a base (Figure 2.2). Each of the four nucleotides differs from the...

Erscheint lt. Verlag	8.9.2009
Sprache	englisch
Themenwelt	Sachbuch/Ratgeber
	Informatik ► Weitere Themen ► Bioinformatik
	Medizin / Pharmazie ► Pflege
	Medizin / Pharmazie ► Physiotherapie / Ergotherapie ► Orthopädie
	Naturwissenschaften ► Biologie ► Genetik / Molekularbiologie
	Technik ► Medizintechnik
	Technik ► Umwelttechnik / Biotechnologie
ISBN-10	0-08-091635-X / 008091635X
ISBN-13	978-0-08-091635-4 / 9780080916354

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