Next Generation Intelligent Optical Networks (eBook)

Introduction 13
Communication Networks 15
1.1 Analog and Digital Transmission 15
1.2 Breaking the Traffic Barrier 17
1.3 Voice and Data Networks 19
References 27
Digital Networks 29
2.1 Synchronous Optical Networks: SONET/SDH 29
2.2 Asynchronous Data/Packet Networks 38
2.3 Review of Data Networks 42
2.3.1 Asynchronous Transfer Mode 42
2.3.2 Ethernet 46
2.3.3 Gigabit Ethernet 47
2.3.4 10 Gigabit Ethernet 50
2.3.5 FDDI 51
2.3.6 Switched Multi-megabit Data Services 53
2.3.7 Frame Relay 53
2.3.8 The Transmission Control Protocol 53
2.3.9 The User Datagram Protocol 54
2.3.10 The Real-Time Transport Protocol 55
2.3.11 Internet Protocol 55
2.3.12 The Point-to-Point Protocol 57
2.3.13 4B/5B and 8B/10B Block Coding 60
2.3.14 Fiber Channel 61
2.3.15 ESCON protocol 64
2.3.16 FICON Protocol 65
2.4 Resilient Packet Ring 66
References 67
WDM Technology and Networks 69
3.1 Introduction 69
3.2 The Optical Fiber in Communications 69
3.2.1 Propagation of Light in Matter 70
3.2.2 Effects That Affect the Propagation of Light in Fiber 71
3.3 The Optical Communications Spectrum 77
3.4 Types of Fiber 79
3.4.1 Optical Power Limit 80
3.4.2 Fiber Birefringence 81
3.4.3 Fiber Dispersion 81
3.4.4 Non-linear Phenomena Cause Positive and Negative Effects 83
3.5 Optical Amplifiers 83
3.5.1 Raman Amplification 84
3.5.2 EDFA Amplification 85
3.5.3 SOA Amplification 87
3.6 Optical Add-Drop Multiplexers 87
3.7 DWDM Networks 87
3.7.1 DWDM Network Topologies 88
3.7.2 Optical Network Interfaces 89
3.7.3 Network Switching 92
3.7.4 Timing and Synchronization 95
3.7.5 Channel and Link Protection 95
3.7.6 Routing 96
3.8 Access WDM Systems 97
3.8.1 The General PON 98
3.8.2 CWDM-PON 101
3.8.3 TDM-PON 101
3.8.4 TDM-PON Versus WDM-PON 103
3.8.5 Hierarchical CWDM/TDM-PON 103
3.8.6 How Real Is PON? 108
3.8.7 Free Space Optical 109
References 111
Next Generation SONET/SDH 114
4.1 Traffic and Service Convergence 114
4.2 Next Generation SONET/SDH Networks 117
4.2.1 Next Generation Ring Networks 117
4.2.2 Next Generation Mesh Networks 118
4.3 Next Generation Protocols 123
4.3.1 Concatenation 124
4.3.2 Generic Multi-protocol Label Switching 125
4.3.3 The Generic Framing Procedure 127
4.3.4 LCAS 133
4.3.5 LAPS 136
4.4 Concatenation Efficiency 140
References 141
The Optical Transport Network 142
5.1 Introduction 142
5.2 OTN Network Layers 142
5.3 FEC in OTN 144
5.4 OTN Frame Structure 145
5.5 OTN and DWDM 151
5.6 OTN Management 152
References 153
Network Synchronization 154
6.1 Introduction 154
6.2 Synchronization 154
6.2.1 The Primary Reference Source 155
6.2.2 The Node Timing Unit and the Phase Lock Loop 156
6.2.3 Synchronization Impairments 158
6.3 The Timing Signal 159
6.4 Signal Quality 160
6.4.1 Noise Sources 161
6.4.2 Quantization Noise 162
6.5 Transmission Factors 162
6.5.1 Phase Distortion and Dispersion 163
6.5.2 Frequency Distortion 163
6.5.3 Polarization Distortion 163
6.5.4 Noise due to Nonlinearity of the Medium 163
6.5.5 ASE 163
6.6 Jitter and Wander 163
6.6.1 Intersymbol Interference 166
6.6.2 Data-Dependent Jitter 166
6.6.3 Pulse-Width Distortion Jitter 167
6.6.4 Sinusoidal Jitter 167
6.6.5 Uncorrelated Bounded Jitter 167
6.6.6 Stokes Noise, Chromatic Jitter, and FWM noise 167
6.6.7 Sources of Jitter 168
6.6.8 Jitter Generation, Tolerance, and Transfer 169
6.7 Photodetector Responsivity and Noise Contributors 169
References 170
Network Performance 172
7.1 Introduction 172
7.2 Channel Performance 174
7.3 Carrier to Noise Ratio and Power–Bandwidth Ratio 175
7.4 Shannon’s Limit 176
7.5 Optical Signal to Noise Ratio 176
7.6 Factors That Affect Channel Performance 177
7.7 Analysis of BER and SNR Related to Channel Performance 178
7.8 BER and SNR Statistical Estimation Method 181
7.9 Circuit for In-Service and Real-Time Performance Estimation 183
References 184
Traffic Management and Control 185
8.1 Introduction 185
8.2 Client Bandwidth Management 187
8.3 Wavelength Management 187
8.4 Traffic Management 189
8.5 Congestion Management 190
8.6 Routing Algorithms 190
8.7 Discovery of Optical Network Topology 191
8.8 Node and Network Provisioning 192
8.9 Wavelength Management Strategies 192
References 193
Network Protection and Fault Management 195
9.1 Introduction 195
9.2 Fault Detection and Isolation 196
9.3 Fault and Service Protection 196
9.4 Point-to-Point Networks 198
9.5 Mesh Network Protection 199
9.6 Ring-Network Protection 200
9.7 Ring-to-Ring Protection 201
9.8 Multi-ring Shared Protection 202
References 202
Network Security 203
10.1 An Old Concern 203
10.2 Network Security Issues 207
10.3 Definitions 208
10.4 Security Levels 212
10.5 Security Layers in Communication Networks 213
10.5.1 Security on the Information Layer 213
10.5.2 Security on the MAC/Network Layer 214
10.5.3 Security on the Link Layer 215
10.6 Mathematical Foundations for Security Coding 215
10.7 Ciphers 220
10.8 Quantum Cryptography 225
10.9 Key Distribution 227
10.9.1 Merkley’s Algorithm 227
10.9.2 Shamir’s Key Distribution Method 227
10.9.3 Diffie–Hellman Key Exchange 227
10.9.4 Elliptic Curve Cryptography 229
10.9.5 Digital Signature 236
10.9.6 The Trusted Third Party or Key Escrow Encryption System 237
10.10 Quantum Key Distribution 237
10.10.1 Polarization-Based Quantum Key Distribution 238
10.10.2 Entangled States and Quantum Teleportation 241
10.10.3 Quantum Teleportation and Quantum Key Distribution 244
10.10.4 A Trivialized Example 245
10.10.5 Current Issues 245
10.11 Current Vulnerabilities in Quantum Cryptography 246
10.12 Countermeasures in Optical Networks 248
10.13 Biometrics and Communication Networks 253
10.14 Security in the Next Generation Optical Networks 254
References 258
Concluding Remarks 264
11.1 Bandwidth Evolution 264
11.2 Convergence 264
11.3 Why Do Not I Have Fiber to My Home? 265
11.4 What About Traditional Services? 265
11.5 How About Security of Information and of the Network? 265
11.6 Number Portability 266
11.7 How Is the Network Managed? 266
11.8 The Bottom Line 266
VPIsystems—Demonstration Examples 267
Introduction 267
Application Example 1 267
Application Example 2 267
Application Example 3 268
Application Example 4 268
Application Example 5 268
Application Example 6 268
Application Example 7 269
Application Example 8 269
Application Example 9 269
Application Example 10 270
Application Example 11 270
Application Example 12 270
Acronyms 271
Short Bio 283