Three-Dimensional Imaging, Visualization, and Display (eBook)

Preface 6
Contents 8
Contributors 11
Part I 3-D Image Display and Generation TechniquesBased on I.P 16
1 Three-Dimensional Integral Television Using High-Resolution Video System with 2000 Scanning Lines 17
Introduction 17
Image Formation 19
1.2.1 Geometric Approach 19
1.2.2 Wave Optical Approach 21
Resolution 24
1.3.1 Derivation of MTF in Capture and Display Stages 25
1.3.2 Examples of MTF 27
1.3.3 Effect of Pixel Pitch 30
Experimental System 30
Conclusion 35
2 High Depth-of-Focus Integral Imaging with Asymmetric Phase Masks 38
Introduction 38
Principles of Integral Imaging 39
2.2.1 Pickup Stage 39
2.2.2 Reconstruction Stage 42
Asymmetric Phase Masks 44
Pickup with an Asymmetric Phase Mask 47
Reconstruction with an Asymmetric Phase Mask 48
Conclusion 50
3 Integral Imaging Using Multiple Display Devices 53
Introduction 53
A Method to Improve Image Depth 54
3.2.1 Image Depth 55
3.2.2 A System to Extend Image Depth 57
A Method to Improve the Viewing Angle 58
3.3.1 Viewing Angle 58
3.3.2 A System to Widen the Viewing Angle 59
A Method to Enhance Viewing Resolution 61
3.4.1 Viewing Resolution 61
3.4.2 A System to Enhance Viewing Resolution 62
Summary 64
4 3-D to 2-D Convertible Displays Using Liquid Crystal Devices 67
Background 67
LC Parallax Barrier Techniques 69
4.2.1 The LC Parallax Barrier Method 69

4.2.2 The Time Multiplexing Method 72

The LC Lenticular Lens Technique 73
4.3.1 The Solid Phase LC Lenticular Lens Method 74

4.3.2 The LC Active Lenticular Lens Method 75
4.3.3 The Slanted Lenticular Lens Method 76
3-D/2-D Convertible Integral Imaging 77
4.4.1 3-D/2-D Convertible Integral Imaging with Point Light Sources 77
Integral Imaging with Point Light Source Array and the Polymer-Dispersed Liquid Crystal 78
Integral Imaging Using a LED Array 79
Integral Imaging Using a Pinhole Array on a Polarizer 80
Integral Imaging Using a Pinhole Array on a Liquid Crystal Panel 83
Integral Imaging Using a Fiber Array 83
4.4.2 3-D/2-D Convertible Integral Imaging with a Lens Array -- A Multilayer Display System 85

Conclusion 87
5 Effect of Pickup Position Uncertainty in Three-Dimensional Computational Integral Imaging 90
Introduction 90
Integral Imaging and Computational Reconstruction 91
Sensitivity Analysis of Synthetic Aperture Integral Imaging (SAII) 94
Degradation Analysis for a Point Source 98
Experimental Results 100
Conclusion 105
Appendix 106
6 3-D Image Reconstruction with Elemental Images Printed on Paper 109
Introduction 109
Dynamic Integral Imaging 110
Static Integral Imaging 111
Experimental Results 111
Conclusion 114
Part II Multiview Image Acquisition, Processingand Display 117
7 Viewing Zones of IP and Other Multi-view Image Methods 118
Introduction 119
Basic Viewing Zone Forming Principle of Multi-view Imaging Methods 120
Image Composition in the Multi-view 122
Viewing Zones for Non-integer Number of Pixels in a Pixel Cell 127
Viewing Zones in IP 131
Image Composition in IP 135
Image Compositions in Other Multi-view Image Methods 136
Conclusions 137
8 Rich Media Services for T-DMB: 3-D Video and 3-D Data Applications 139
Introduction 139
The T-DMB System 140
8.2.1 Service Framework of T-DMB 141
8.2.2 The T-DMB Protocol 142
8.2.3 Applications 145
The 3-D DMB System 145
8.3.1 Basic Concepts and Requirements 145
8.3.2 The 3-D DMB Service Framework 147
8.3.3 3-D Video Service 147
3-D DMB Sender 147
3-D DMB Receiver 148
Implementation and Evaluation 149
8.3.4 3-D Data Service 150
Efficient Coding of Stereoscopic Video 151
8.4.1 Related Work 151
8.4.2 Structure of 3-D DMB Codec 152
8.4.3 Implementation 153
8.4.4 Experimental Results 154
Conclusions and Future Work 155
9 Depth Map Generation for 3-D TV: Importance of Edge and Boundary Information 160
Introduction 160
Primed for 3-D TV 161
Depth Image-based Rendering 162
Depth Map Generation 165
Effect of Edge and Boundary Information 167
9.5.1 Local Scale Method 167
9.5.2 Standard Deviation Method 168
9.5.3 Sobel Method 169
9.5.4 Subjective Assessment 169
Role of Edge and Boundary Information 177
9.6.1 Subjective Assessment 180
Conclusions and Future Research 183
10 Large Stereoscopic LED Display by Use of a Parallax Barrier 189
Introduction 190
Enlargement of Viewing Areas of Stereoscopic LED Display by Use of a Parallax Barrier 191
Design of Parallax Barrier for Plural Viewers 198
Elimination of Pseudoscopic Viewing Area 202
Trace of Viewers Movements 205
Recent Developments 209
Summay 210
11 Synthesizing 3-D Images with Voxels 212
Introduction 212
Description of Voxels in the Point Light Source Array 214
Pixel Patterns of Incomplete Voxels 220
Pixel Patterns of Pixel Cells with Rhomb Shapes 222
Comparison of 3-D Image Synthesis Between MV and IP Imaging Systems 227
Conclusion 229
12 Multi-view Image Acquisition and Display 231
Introduction 232
Stereoscopic Image Distortion Analysis in Parallel Type Camera Configuration 234
Stereoscopic Image Distortion Analysis in Radial Type Camera Configuration 238
Multi-view Image Acquisition and Display 244
Conclusions 251
13 3-D Video Processing for 3-D TV 254
Introduction 254
3-D Content Generation 257
13.2.1 Background 257
13.2.2 3-D Data Acquisition 257
13.2.3 2-D/3-D Conversion 259
13.2.4 3-D Mixed Reality Content Generation 261
3-D Video CODECs 263
13.3.1 Background 263
13.3.2 Disparity Estimation 264
13.3.3 3-D Video Compression 266
13.3.4 Multi-View Video Coding Standard 271
Video Processing for 3-D Displays 273
13.4.1 Background 273
13.4.2 Intermediate Video Synthesis 274
13.4.3 Virtual View Rendering 276
Conclusion 278
Part III 3-D Image Acquisition, Processing and DisplayBased on Digital Holography 282
14 Imaging 3-D Objects by Extending the Depth of Focus in Digital Holography 283
Introduction 283
Angular Spectrum Method for Reconstructing Holograms on Tilted Planes 285
14.2.1 Experimental Configuration 285
14.2.2 Description of the Method and Reconstruction Algorithm 286
Extended Focus Image (EFI) by Digital Holography 290
14.3.1 Approaches Adopted for Extending the Depth-of-Focus in Classical Microscopes 291
Construction of an EFI by Means of Digital Holography 291
Constructing an EFI by DH Using Amplitude Reconstructions 295
Constructing an EFI by DH Using Amplitude and Phase Reconstructions 296
Conclusions 301
15 Extraction of Three-dimensional Information from Reconstructions of In-Line Digital Holograms 304
Introduction 304
Digital Holographic Recording 306
15.2.1 PSI Setup 307
15.2.2 PSI Theory 309
15.2.3 PSI Proof 310
Focus Detection 312
15.3.1 Focus and Imaging 312
Focus Measures in Digital Holography 313
15.3.2 Evaluation of Two Focus Measures 315
15.3.3 Autofocus 318
15.3.4 Depth from Focus 318
Extraction of Data from Digital Holographic Reconstructions 321
15.4.1 Extraction of Shape Information 322
15.4.2 Extraction of Extended Focused Image 324
15.4.3 Extraction of Objects from Digital Holographic Reconstructions 324
Extraction of Objects from Background in Digital Holographic Reconstructions 324
Extraction of Multiple Objects from Reconstructions 326
15.4.4 Synthetic Digital Holographic Scene Creation 327
Conclusions 329
16 Polarimetric Imaging of 3-D Object by Use of Wavefront-Splitting Phase-Shifting Digital Holography 334
Introduction 334
Wavefront-Splitting Phase-Shifting Digital Holography with a Phase Difference Between Orthogonal Polarizations 335
16.2.1 Phase Analysis by Two-Step Method 335
16.2.2 Phase-Shifting Method with Orthogonal Polarizations 336
Wavefront-Splitting Phase-Shifting Digital Holography 337
Stokes Vector 338
Experimental Results 339
Conclusions 343
17 Three-dimensional Display with Data Manipulation based on Digital Holography 346
Introduction 346
Three-Dimensional Holographic Display Systems Based on Digital Holography 347
Fast Recording System of Complex Amplitude of 3-D Object Based on Digital Holography 347
17.3.1 Fast Recording Systems Based on Phase-shifting Digital Holography 348
17.3.2 Phase Retrieval Method for Instantaneous Recording 350
Information Processing 355
Conclusions 358
Part IV Other 3-D Image Acquisition and DisplayTechniques, and Human Factors 361
18 A 3-D Display System Using Motion Parallax 362
Introduction This chapter is not a comprehensive review of the area of motion parallax. For such a review, we recommend the chapter entitled Depth from motion parallax in '133 5 '135. They are currently writing a more up-to-date review that will appear soon. 362
Early Accounts of Motion Parallax and Early and Recent Experimental Studies 363
Demonstration 366
The Suggested 3-D Display System 367
Summary 369
Appendix 370
19 Dynamic Three-Dimensional Human Model 372
Introduction 372
Outline of 3-D Modeling 373
Synchronous Capture of Images from Multiple Video Cameras 373
Camera Calibration 375
3-D Modeling 376
19.5.1 Volume Intersection Method 376
19.5.2 Modification of the 3-D Shape by Using Stereo Matching 377
Initial Depth Image 378
Stereo Matching Method 378
Integration of Depth Images 380
Texture Mapping 381
Real-Time and Continuous Display System 383
19.7.0 Dynamic 3-D Model 383
19.7.0 Texture Images 383
19.7.0 Information on Polygon Visibility 384
19.7.0 Camera Parameters 384
3-D Video System for Archiving Japanese Traditional Performing Arts 385
Conclusion 386
20 Electronic Holography for Real Objects Using Integral Photography 388
Introduction 388
Calculation of Holograms from Integral Photography 390
20.2.1 Principle of Transformation from Integral Photography into Hologram 391
20.2.2 Basic Calculation 392
20.2.3 Avoidance of Aliasing 395
20.2.4 Elimination of Undesired Beams 398
20.2.5 Image Reconstructed by Basic Calculation 400
Reducing Computing Load 404
20.3.1 Reduction of Computing Load by Limiting Range of Computation 405
20.3.2 Reduction of Computing Load by Shifting Optical Field 407
20.3.3 Images Reconstructed by Using Method of Reducing Computing Load 409
Electronic Holography Using Real IP Images 410
Conclusion 414
21 Working Towards Developing Human Harmonic Stereoscopic Systems 416
The Geometry of Reproduced 3-D Space and Space Perception 418
21.1.1 Setting Optical Axes in Stereoscopic Shooting 418
Shooting with Parallel Optical Axes 418
Shooting with Crossed Optical Axes 419
21.1.2 Converting from Shooting Space to Stereoscopic Image Space 419
Parallel Camera Configuration 422
Toed-in Camera Configuration 423
21.1.3 Puppet-Theater Effect 424
Parallel Camera Configuration 425
Toed-in Camera Configuration 426
21.1.4 Cardboard Effect 427
Parallel Camera Configuration 428
Toed-in Camera Configuration 428
21.1.5 Summary 429
21.1.6 Geometry Mapping Simulation System 430
Binocular Fusion, Stereopsis, and Visual Comfort 430
21.2.1 Visual Functions as Indices of Visual Fatigue When Watching Stereoscopic Images 435
Participants and Methods 436
Viewing Condition and Procedures 437
Results 437
Conclusions from this Experiment 442
21.2.2 Spatial Distribution in Depth of Objects 444
Methods 447
Procedure 448
Results 450
Conclusions of this Experiment 452
21.2.3 Temporal Distribution in Depth of Objects 454
Methods 454
Results 455
Conclusions of this Experiment 458
Non-Principle Factors and Their Desirable (Allowable) Ranges 459
How to Avoid Undesired Effects 461
21.3.1 How to Avoid Spatial Distortion of Represented Space by Stereoscopic Image Systems 461
21.3.2 How to Avoid Visual Fatigue in Viewing Stereoscopic Images 462
Future Work 462
Note 463
22 Development of Time-Multiplexed Autostereoscopic Display Based on LCD Panel 466
Introduction 466
Autostereoscopic Time-Multiplexed Display 467
22.2.1 Concept of the Display 467
22.2.2 Optical Layout 468
Dynamic Properties of the Display Parts 471
22.3.1 Scan-and-Hold Properties of LCD Panel 471
22.3.2 Time-Mismatch Cross Talk 473
22.3.3 Driving of Pi-Cell 475
22.3.4 LCD Response Time, Response Time Acceleration Technique and Dynamic Cross Talk 478
22.3.5 Other Methods for Correction of the LCD Shortcomings 482
22.3.6 Frame Rate of LCD Panel 484
Practical Implementation and Experimental Results 484
Extension of the Developed Technique to Passive Eyeglasses Type Stereoscopic System 486
Summary 489
23 3-D Nano Object Recognition by Use of Phase Sensitive Scatterometry 491
Introduction 491
RCWA Based Scatterometry Theory 492
Three-Dimensional Nano Object Recognition 494
Conclusion 497
Index 500