Internet of Things (eBook)

Preface 
5 
1 Networking Issues in the IoT 5
2 Middleware for the Internet of Things 8
3 Localization and Applications 10
4 RFID and Sensor Networks Technologies 12
5 Security and Privacy Issues 16
Contents 19
Part I Networking Issues 32
Objects Communication Behavior on Multihomed Hybrid Ad Hoc Networks 33
1 Introduction 33
2 The Multihomed Scenarios 34
2.1 Address Allocation 35
2.2 Gateways 35
2.3 MANET Protocols 36
2.3.1 AODV 36
2.3.2 OLSR 37
3 Multihomed Hybrid Ad Hoc Networks Analysis 37
3.1 Scenario 1 38
3.2 Scenario 2 39
4 Results and Conclusions 39
References 41
Classification of Emerging Protocols in the Presence of Asymmetric Routing 42
1 Introduction 42
1.1 Research Contributions 43
2 Tuning the Unidirectional Classifiers 43
3 Combining Unidirectional Classifiers 44
3.1 First Technique: Recall Maximization 44
3.2 Second Technique: Precision Maximization 45
4 Comparing the Unidirectional and Bidirectional Classifiers 46
4.1 MAP: Recall Comparison 46
4.2 MaxP: Independence of Wrong Verdicts 47
5 Datasets 48
5.1 UNIBS Dataset (2006) 48
5.2 LBNL Dataset (2004–2005) 49
5.3 CAIDA Dataset (2002) 49
6 Results 50
6.1 Unidirectional Classification 50
6.2 Bidirectional Classification 50
7 Discussion 51
7.1 Overall Results 51
7.2 On the Impact of Contrasting Classifiers' Verdicts 52
8 Conclusions 53
References 53
Performance Evaluation of Routing Protocols in WSNs Arranged in Linear Topologies 55
1 Introduction 55
2 System Description 56
2.1 WSN Deployment 56
2.2 Test Application 57
2.3 System Cares and Assumptions 57
2.4 Performance Evaluation Metrics 58
3 Single Hop Algorithm 58
4 Limited Flooder Algorithm 59
5 Hopefully Longest Jump First Algorithm 60
6 Experimental Results 61
6.1 Packet Delivery Success Rate 62
6.2 Delays 64
7 Conclusions 65
References 66
A Distributed Procedure for IEEE 802.15.4 PAN Coordinator Election in Emergency Scenarios 67
1 Introduction 67
2 Self-Configuration of an IEEE 802.15.4 WPAN 68
3 Considered Network Architecture for Emergency Scenarios 69
4 A Distributed Procedure for PAN Coordinator Election 70
5 Performance Analysis 74
6 Conclusions 76
References 76
A Mobile Platform for Measurements in Dynamic Topology Wireless Networks 77
1 Introduction and Motivation 77
2 The Proposed Mobile Platform 78
3 Communication Architectures 80
4 Examples of Applications 81
4.1 Passive Transport Scenario 81
4.1.1 Example 1: Direct Transmission 82
4.1.2 Example 2: Transmission Relay 82
4.2 Active Transport Scenario 83
4.2.1 Remote Camera Application 83
5 Conclusions 84
References 84
Cluster-Based Irresponsible Forwarding 86
1 Introduction 86
2 Irresponsible Forwarding 87
3 Cluster-Based Irresponsible Forwarding: The Idea 88
4 IEEE 802.11 Network Simulation Setup 90
5 Numerical Results 92
6 Conclusions 94
References 95
Dynamic Spectrum Access Communications: Wavelet Modulation with Unequal Power Allocation 96
1 Introduction 96
2 Wavelet Modulation 97
3 Modulation with Unequal Power Allocation 98
4 Weights Optimization 101
5 Simulation and Testing 102
References 105
Optimal Cross-Layer Flow-Control for WirelessMaximum-Throughput Delivery of VBR Media Contents 106
1 Introduction and Goals 106
1.1 The Tackled Problem and Related Works 107
2 System Architecture and Problem Setup 108
2.1 Setup of the Optimization Problem 109
3 The Controller Maximizing the Conditional Average Throughput 110
4 Conditional-vs.-Unconditional Average Throughput-Maximization and Performance Bounds 111
4.1 On the Average Throughput of the Optimal Controller 111
5 Performance Tests and Comparisons 112
References 114
A Secure MPLS VPN Infrastructure for Complex Geodata Sensor Network 116
1 Introduction 116
2 MPLS VPN Infrastructure 117
3 Proposed Infrastructure for Complex GSN 119
4 Securing MPLS VPN Infrastructure 121
5 Conclusions 122
References 123
Part II The Role of the Middleware 124
Making the Internet of Things a Reality: The WhereX Solution 125
1 Introduction 125
2 Design Principles of an RFID Middleware 128
2.1 Architecture Description 129
3 The WhereX"472 Middleware 130
4 Case Study 131
5 Conclusions 132
References 133
A Scalable Grid and Service-Oriented Middleware for Distributed Heterogeneous Data and System Integration in Context-Awareness-Oriented Domains 135
1 Introduction 135
2 Related Work 136
3 SAI Middleware Overview 137
3.1 SAI Architecture 137
3.1.1 Front-End Portal 138
3.1.2 Grid Infrastructure 138
3.1.3 Basic Back-End Services 138
3.1.4 Message Bus 139
3.1.5 The Adaptors Framework 139
3.2 System Dependability 140
3.3 Service Invocation and Composition in the SAI Framework 140
4 Case Study for Dangerous Goods Monitoring 142
5 Conclusions 144
References 144
InterDataNet: A Scalable Middleware Infrastructure for Smart Data Integration 145
1 Introduction 145
2 Grounding Principles and Design Paradigms of the IDN Framework 146
3 IDN Main Views and IDN Naming System 147
3.1 The IDN Service Architecture 149
4 IoT Objects Representations Supported by the IDN Framework 150
5 Conclusions and Research Challenges 151
References 152
CONVERGENCE: Extending the Media Concept to Include Representations of Real World Objects 154
1 Introduction 154
2 The CONVERGENCE Framework 156
2.1 Versatile Digital Items 156
2.2 The CONVERGENCE Middleware 157
2.2.1 Middleware Model 159
2.2.2 Networking Approach 160
2.3 Tools and Applications 161
3 Use Cases 162
3.1 Dynamic Logbook 162
3.2 Digital Forgetting – Automatic Garbage Collection 163
3.3 VDIs in a Store 164
4 Conclusions 165
References 165
Service Oriented Middleware Solutions for Emergency Communication Networks 166
1 Introduction 166
2 Organizational Framework 168
3 Related Work and Projects 168
4 OMG Data Distribution Service 170
5 Experiment Implementation Details 172
5.1 Designed OMG DDS Topics 173
5.2 Developed Applications 175
6 Concluding Remarks and Future Directions 176
References 177
Part III Localization and Applications 179
Localization Issues in a ZigBee Based Internet of Things Scenario 180
1 Introduction 180
2 ZigBee WSN 181
3 Localization via a ZigBee WSN 181
3.1 Field Test Campaign 182
3.2 Optimization of the Localization Algorithm 183
4 Related Works 185
5 Conclusion 187
References 188
Low-Complexity Audio Signal Processing for Localization in Indoor Scenarios 189
1 Introduction 189
2 One-Dimensional Scenarios 190
2.1 Statement of the Problem 190
2.2 Centralized Localization Algorithm 191
2.3 Distributed Localization Algorithms 193
3 Two-Dimensional Scenarios 195
3.1 Statement of the Problem 195
3.2 Centralized Localization Algorithm 195
4 Results and Discussion 197
5 Concluding Remarks 198
References 198
Integrated GPS-Denied Localization, Tracking, and Personal Identification 199
1 Introduction 199
2 Biometric Badge 200
3 Positioning Algorithm 201
3.1 Notation 201
3.2 Classical Steepest Descent 202
3.3 Enhanced Steepest Descent 202
4 Proof-of-Concept via Experimental Testbed 203
4.1 Ranging Model 203
4.2 System Setup 205
4.3 Results CC2431 205
5 Demo Description 206
References 207
Design and Implementation of Smartphone Applications for Speaker Count and Gender Recognition 209
1 Introduction 209
2 The Proposed Methods: Pitch Definition and GMM Classification 210
2.1 Speaker Count 211
2.2 Gender Recognition 211
3 Experiments and Results 212
3.1 Speaker Count Results 213
3.2 Gender Recognition Results 214
4 Smartphone Implementation 214
5 Conclusions 215
References 216
Video Coding with Motion Estimation at the Decoder 217
1 Introduction 217
2 Motion Compensation in Traditional Video Coding Schemes 218
3 The Proposed Algorithm for Motion Estimation at the Decoder 218
3.1 Decoder Side Information 219
3.2 Outline of the Predictor Selection Algorithm 219
3.3 Candidate Selection Based on Least Square Error Prediction 221
4 Experimental Results 223
5 Conclusions 225
References 225
Inter-Vehicle Communication QoS Management for Disaster Recovery 226
1 Introduction 226
2 Disaster Recovery Scenario and Relief System Architecture 227
3 QoS-Provisioning Proposed Approach 229
3.1 The Proposed QoS Management Architecture 229
3.1.1 DiffServ Architecture in a Relief Network 230
3.1.2 QoS Manager 232
3.1.3 QoS Software Implementation on Linux DiffServ Nodes 234
4 Performance Results 235
5 Conclusions 236
References 236
Part IV RFID and Sensor Networks Technologies 238
Beyond the ID in RFID 239
1 Introduction 239
2 Requirements of Wireless Sensing 240
3 Strengths and Weaknesses of Active, Battery Powered Wireless Sensors 241
4 Passive Wireless Sensing 241
4.1 Passive RFID Front-end Combined with Sensor Electronics 242
4.2 RFID Tag Antenna Based Sensing 243
5 Conclusions and Outlook 245
References 246
Performance Characterization of Passive UHF RFID Tags 248
1 Introduction 248
2 Functioning of Passive UHF RFID Systems 249
2.1 Equivalent Tag Circuit 250
3 Threshold Power Level and Backscattered Signal Strength of a Tag 251
4 Overview of RFID Signal Measurements 251
5 Examples of Performance Characterization 252
5.1 Dipoles of Various Widths 252
5.2 Analysis of Impedance Matching Properties of a Bow-Tie Tag Antenna 254
6 Conclusions and Future Work 256
References 256
Chipless Tags, the Next RFID Frontier 258
1 Introduction 258
2 Traditional RFID Tag 259
3 Chipless Solutions 261
3.1 Chipless Methods 261
3.2 RF Chipless 262
3.3 Towards THz Chipless 265
4 Conclusion 267
References 268
Backscatter Communication Using Ultrawide Bandwidth Signals for RFID Applications 269
1 Introduction 269
2 UWB Backscatter Propagation 270
2.1 UWB Antenna Backscattering 270
2.2 The Round-Trip Channel Transfer Function 271
3 Experimental Characterization of UWB Antenna Backscatter 272
4 Tags–Reader Backscatter Communication Using UWB Signals 273
5 Numerical Results 277
6 Conclusions 279
References 279
Passive RFID Integrated Transponders for Automotive Applications 280
1 Introduction 280
2 Vehicle Identification Scenario 282
3 Transponder Design and Analysis 284
3.1 Return Loss 285
3.2 UHF Antenna Design 286
4 Experimental Results 287
5 Conclusions 288
References 288
Sensor-Oriented Passive RFID 290
1 Introduction 290
2 Basic Definitions for RFID Systems 291
3 Extraction of Sensing Data 292
4 Experimentations 293
4.1 Sensing of Medium Changes 294
4.2 Sensing of Body Motion 295
5 Conclusions 298
References 299
Performance Evaluation of UHF RFID Tags in the Pharmaceutical Supply Chain 300
1 Introduction 300
2 Description of Test Environment 301
3 Drugs Classification 302
4 Experimental Results 303
4.1 Items Line Testing 304
4.2 Cases Line Testing 306
4.3 Purchase Orders Gate Testing 308
5 Conclusion 308
References 309
The Benefits of RFID and EPC in the Supply Chain: Lessons from an Italian Pilot Study 310
1 Introduction 310
2 Overview of the RFID Logistics Pilot Project 311
3 RFID Implementation: Costs and Savings Assessment 312
3.1 Internal Automation 313
3.2 Automation of Supply Chain Processes 314
3.3 Inventory Management 315
3.4 Automation of Other Processes 315
3.5 Stock-Out Reduction 316
4 Feasibility Study and Discussion 317
5 Conclusions 318
References 319
RFID Data Analytics in Apparel Retail 320
1 Introduction 320
2 Data Analyses 321
2.1 RFID Reader Performance 321
2.2 Front Store/Back Store Inventory 322
2.3 Lead Times 322
2.4 Process Cycles 323
2.5 Misplaced Merchandise 323
2.6 Utilization of Fitting Rooms 323
2.7 Complements and Substitutes 323
2.8 Correlation Between Sales, Try-on Frequency, and Inventory 324
3 Outlook 324
References 324
Towards the Future Internet of Sensors 326
1 Introduction 326
2 SANET Networks and the Internet 327
3 Future Internet of Sensors 328
3.1 Interconnection Architecture 329
3.2 DATA Layer and its Interface 331
4 Research Agenda 333
5 Related Work 333
6 Conclusion 334
References 334
Energy and Distortion Minimization in ``Refining'' and ``Expanding'' Sensor Networks 336
1 Introduction 336
2 Problem Statement for the ``Refining'' WSN 337
3 Nonlinear Parametric Approximation of the Optimal Strategies 339
4 Performance Evaluation and Discussion 340
5 Considerations on the ``Expanding'' Case 343
6 Conclusions 343
References 344
An IEEE 802.15.4 Wireless Sensor Network for Energy Efficient Buildings 345
1 Introduction 345
2 The Reference Scenario and Channel Model 347
3 The IEEE 802.15.4 348
3.1 The Tree-Based Topology 349
4 Numerical Results 350
5 Conclusions 353
References 353
A Real Implementation and Deployment for Wine Production Management Based on Wireless Sensor Network Technology 355
1 Introduction 355
2 Ambient Intelligence and Precision Agriculture 356
3 A Killer Application Example: Wine Production Monitoring 357
4 The Wireless Sensor Network System 358
5 Pilot Sites 361
6 Conclusions and Further Developments 363
References 364
Performance Evaluation of an IEEE802.15.4 Standard Based Wireless Sensor Network in Mars Exploration Scenario 365
1 Introduction 365
2 Related Work 365
3 Martian Channels Characterization 366
4 BER Performances 368
5 SER Performances 369
6 Packet Level Coding Evaluation 369
7 OMNET++ Simulations 370
7.1 Used Model 370
7.2 Simulation Results 372
8 Conclusions 374
References 374
The PECES Project: Ubiquous Transport Information Systems 375
1 The Challenge 375
1.1 The Objectives of the Project 376
1.2 Smart Access Control 377
1.3 Smart Car 378
1.4 Smart Access Control 379
1.5 Smart Office 381
2 Conclusions 381
References 382
HYDRA: A Development Platform for Integrating Wireless Devices and Sensors into Ambient Intelligence Systems 383
1 Developing Middleware to Enable Software Developers to Create Services for Embedded Systems 383
2 Hydra 384
2.1 Embedded Ambient Intelligence Architecture 385
2.2 Wireless Communication and Networks 385
2.3 Service-Oriented Architecture 386
2.4 Trust, Privacy and Security 386
2.5 Application Domains 386
2.5.1 Building Automation 387
2.5.2 Healthcare 387
2.5.3 Agriculture 387
3 Prototype 387
Reference 388
Probabilistic Information Dissemination for MANETs: The IPAC Approach 390
1 Introduction 390
2 Related Work 391
3 IPAC Information Dissemination 392
3.1 Nonadaptive Probabilistic Broadcast Algorithm – L0 392
3.2 Adaptive Probabilistic Broadcast Algorithm – L1 394
3.3 Adaptive Probabilistic Broadcast Algorithm – L2 396
3.3.1 Simulation Layout 397
4 Conclusions and Future Work 398
Reference 399
Part V Security and Privacy Issues 401
An Overview of Privacy and Security Issues in the Internet of Things 402
1 Introduction 402
2 Short Term 403
2.1 RFID and Identification 403
2.2 WSN and Networking 405
3 Long-Term Vision 406
4 Conclusions 407
Reference 408
Privacy Challenges in RFID Systems 409
1 Introduction 409
2 Overview 410
2.1 Desired Properties in RFID Systems 410
2.2 Security of RFID Standards 411
2.3 Security for Non-standard RFID 412
2.3.1 Protocols Using Hash Functions 412
2.3.2 Protocols Using Private-Key Algorithms 413
2.3.3 Protocols Using Public-Key Algorithms 413
2.3.4 Comparison of Cryptographic Features 414
3 Authentication Protocol Design 415
3.1 System Parameters 415
3.2 Component Design 415
3.3 Authentication Protocol Construction 416
4 Conclusion 418
Reference 418
Security and Privacy Protection of Contactless Devices 420
1 Introduction 420
1.1 Threats 421
1.1.1 Economical and Societal Context and Trusted Computing 421
1.1.2 Risk Analysis 422
1.2 Basic Attacks 423
1.2.1 Passive Listening 423
1.2.2 Remote Activation 424
1.2.3 Denial of Service 425
2 Countermeasures 426
2.1 The RFID Noisy Reader: How to Prevent from Eavesdropping on the Communication? 426
2.2 Principle of the Noisy Reader 426
2.3 Technical Design and Implementation 427
2.4 Performances 427
2.5 The Contactless Privacy Manager: How to Protect from Unauthorized RFID Readings? 428
2.6 Contactless Privacy Manager 428
2.7 Designed Solution 429
3 Conclusion 429
Reference 430
Private Location-Based Information Retrievalvia k-Anonymous Clustering 431
1 Introduction 431
2 State of the Art on Privacy in LBSs 432
3 A Functional Architecture for k-Anonymous LBSs 435
4 Modified Lloyd Algorithm for k-Anonymous Clustering 436
5 Conclusion 438
Reference 439
Index 441