Pedestrian and Evacuation Dynamics 2008 (eBook)

Preface 5
Contents 7
Part I Experiment and Evacuation 15
The UK WTC9/11 Evacuation Study: An Overview of the Methodologies Employed and Some Preliminary Analysis 16
Introduction 16
Research Themes 18
Research Protocols 19
Recruitment 20
Interview Structure and Content 20
Development of HEED Database and Coding Process 21
Preliminary Data Analysis 23
Stoppage Data for WTC1 24
Stair Travel Speeds 27
Response Times 33
Concluding Comments 35
References 36
Evacuation Movement in Photoluminescent Stairwells 38
Introduction 38
Methodology 40
Experimental Design 41
Data Gathering 42
Field Study Results 43
Questionnaire Results 43
Respondent Profile 43
Alarm and Initial Response 44
Evacuation Times 45
Stairwell Evacuation 46
Data from the Video Cameras 48
Time to Start 48
Speed of Movement 49
Observed Behavior 51
Summary and Conclusions 53
Evacuees' Subjective Assessment of PLM Signage 53
Occupant Movement 53
Comparison of PLM Installations 54
Comparison of PLM with Emergency Lighting 54
References 55
Automatic Extraction of Pedestrian Trajectories from Video Recordings 56
Introduction and Motivation 56
Experiments 57
Extraction of Trajectories 58
Calibration 58
Recognition 59
Tracking 62
Height Detection 62
Results 63
Implementation 63
Trajectories 64
Combination of Camera Views 64
Missing Frames 65
Error 65
Summary and Outlook 67
References 67
Stairwell Evacuation from Buildings: What We Know We Don't Know 68
Introduction 68
Occupant Movement in Building Evacuation 69
Current Study 70
Conclusions 77
References 78
Evacuation of a High Floor Metro Train in a Tunnel Situation: Experimental Findings 80
Introduction 80
Description of the Train 81
Description of the Environmental Factors 82
Description of the Participants 83
Physical Data of the Participants 83
Distribution of the Participants 85
Documentation and Evaluation of the Experiments 86
Description of the Evacuation Set up 86
Observations and Findings 87
Trial 1: Flow Rates 87
Trial 2: Exit Behavior 88
Trial 2: Formation of Congestions 91
Conclusions 93
References 93
Using Laser Scanner Data to Calibrate Certain Aspects of Microscopic Pedestrian Motion Models 95
Introduction 95
The Experiments at PAMELA 96
The Tracking Algorithm 99
Modelling of Stopping and Turning Movements 102
Conclusions 104
Acknowledgements 105
References 105
Pedestrian Vision and Collision Avoidance Behavior: Investigation of the Information Process Space of Pedestrians Using an Eye Tracker 107
Background 107
Methodologies 111
Results 112
General Fixation Behavior 112
Fixations by the Object Type 113
Location of the Observed Fixations 113
Discussion 116
Conclusions 118
References 118
FDS+Evac: An Agent Based Fire Evacuation Model 121
Introduction 121
Method 122
Movement Algorithm 123
Interaction of the Agents and Fire 126
Results 127
Test Case A 127
Test Case B 129
Test Case C 130
Summary 131
Acknowledgements 131
References 131
Comparisons of Evacuation Efficiency and Pre-travel Activity Times in Response to a Sounder and Two Different Voice Alarm Messages 133
Introduction 133
Methods 135
Results 137
Shopping Center Restaurant Evacuation 137
Multistory Office Building Meeting Room Evacuation 138
University Teaching Laboratory Experiment with Three Alarm Types 139
Findings from Questionnaire-University Teaching Laboratory Experiment with Three Alarm Types 142
Discussion 143
Effects of Alarm Type on PTAT Recognition and Response Times 143
Perceived Seriousness of the Alarm 144
Group Interactions 145
Design Behavioural Scenarios 145
Conclusion 146
References 146
Design of Voice Alarms-the Benefit of Mentioning Fire and the Use of a Synthetic Voice 147
Introduction 147
Method 149
Design of Messages 149
Questionnaire Study at IKEA 150
Participants 150
Procedure 150
Evacuation Experiments at Lund University 151
Participants 151
Procedure 151
Results 152
Synthetic Versus Human Voice 153
With Versus Without `Fire' 153
Discussion 154
Conclusions 155
References 156
Enhanced Empirical Data for the Fundamental Diagram and the Flow Through Bottlenecks 157
Introduction 157
Review of Empirical Results 158
Fundamental Diagram 158
Bottleneck Flow 160
Research Project-Overview 162
Influence of the Measurement Method 163
Conclusions 167
References 167
Parameters of Pedestrian Flow for Modeling Purposes 169
Introduction 169
Fundamental Laws of Pedestrian Flow 170
The Theory for Emotional State, Density of Flow and Travel Speed Law 173
Special Cases of Foot Traffic Flows 174
Cross Flows 175
Contra Flows 175
Movement on Routs with Unlimited Width 176
Movement Through Door Aperture 176
Modeling of Pedestrians Movement in a Flow 176
Conclusions 179
References 181
Emergency Preparedness in the Case of a Tsunami-Evacuation Analysis and Traffic Optimization for the Indonesian City of Padang 183
Introduction 184
Related Work 185
Input Data 185
Geographical Information Derived from Remote Sensing 186
Inundation Scenarios 187
Socio-Economic Data 188
Simulation Framework 190
Results 191
Existing Problems 191
Conclusion 192
References 193
Case Studies on Evacuation Behaviour in a Hotel Building in BART and in Real Life 195
Evacuation Behaviour 195
Research Method 197
Research Aim, Focus and Selected Object 197
Test Scenario 197
Participants 198
Observations 199
BARTtrial 200
Case Studies 201
BARTtrial 201
BARTtrial participant 7082903 201
BARTtrial participant 7082904 201
BARTtrial participant 7082905 202
BARTtrial participant 7120401 202
BARTtrial participant 7120402 203
BARTtrial participant 7120403 203
BARTtrial participant 7120404 204
BARTtrial participant 7120405 204
Real Hotel 205
Real hotel participant 7101901 205
Real hotel participant 7101902 205
Real hotel participant 7101903 206
Real hotel participant 7101904 206
Real hotel participant 7101905 206
Real hotel participant 7101906 207
Real hotel participant 7101907 207
Real hotel participant 7101908 208
Real hotel participant 7102004 208
Comparison of Case Studies in BARTtrial and in Real Hotel 209
Conclusions and Further Work 211
References 212
Analysis of Empirical Trajectory Data of Pedestrians 214
Introduction 214
Low Density 214
Hybrid Approach 215
Medium-to-High Density 218
High Density 219
Social-Force Model 219
Improved Specifications of the Social-Force Model 222
Summary 224
References 224
Model-Based Real-Time Estimation of Building Occupancy During Emergency Egress 226
Introduction 227
Problem Definition 228
Sensor-Only Estimator 229
Model-Based Estimator for Building Egress Mode 230
People Movement Model 230
Sensor Models 232
Accounting for Constraints in the Estimate 232
Accounting for Constraints in the Covariance Estimate 233
Simulation Test Results 234
Conclusion 235
References 235
Experiments on Evacuation Dynamics for Different Classes of Situations 236
Introduction 236
Experiments 237
Description 237
Results 239
Conclusions 242
References 243
Prediction and Mitigation of Crush Conditions in Emergency Evacuations 244
Introduction 244
Definition of Crush Conditions 246
Spatial 246
Temporal 247
Perceptual and Cognitive Factors 247
Procedural 248
Summary 248
Case Studies 248
Rhode Island Nightclub 248
Gothenburg Dancehall 249
E2 Nightclub Incident 249
Hillsborough 250
Previous Work in the Field 250
Implicit 250
Explicit 251
Our Proposed Approach 252
Identification 252
Qualification 253
Quantification 254
Hybrid Approach 254
Benefits of Our Approach 255
Conclusion 256
References 256
Start Waves and Pedestrian Movement- An Experimental Study 258
Introduction and Experimental Setup 258
Results and Discussion 258
Clearance Time for Pedestrian Crossing 260
Purpose of the Study 260
Methodology 261
Results 262
Experiment Examples 264
Conclusions 265
References 266
Ship Evacuation-Guidelines, Simulation, Validation, and Acceptance Criteria 267
Ship Evacuation: History and Guidelines 267
Historical Background 267
Guidelines for Ship Evacuation 267
Simulation of Evacuation Processes on Passenger Ships 268
Influences on Ship Evacuation 268
The Procedure: Assembly and Embarkation Phase 268
ASET in the Case of a Ship 269
Calibration, Validation, and Verification 269
Calibration of Evacuation Models for Ships 269
Implementation and Verification 270
Validation of a Model Based on Simulation Results 271
Acceptance Criteria 271
Conclusions and Outlook 272
Safe Return to Port 272
Information Resources 272
Acknowledgements 272
References 272
Empirical Study of Pedestrians' Characteristics at Bottlenecks 273
Experimental Setup 274
Results 275
Density in Front of the Bottleneck 275
Density Inside the Bottleneck 275
Conclusions and Outlook 276
References 278
RFID Technology Applied for Validation of an Office Simulation Model 279
Introduction 279
Validation Approach 281
Criterion Variables 281
Goodness-of-Fit 282
Observation Method-RFID 283
Validation Results 284
Zone Utilisation 284
Employees 284
Discussion 285
References 285
Study on Crowd Flow Outside a Hall via Considering Velocity Distribution of Pedestrians 286
Introduction 286
Model 287
Simulation and Results 287
Conclusion 291
References 292
Analysis on the Propagation Speed of Pedestrian Reaction: Velocity of Starting Wave and Stopping Wave 293
Introduction 293
Experiments 294
Forthright Walking 294
Circular Walking 294
Cellular Automaton Simulations 296
Mean Field Analysis 297
Conclusion 298
References 298
Part II Simulation and Modeling 299
Toward Smooth Movement of Crowds 300
What is Jamology? 300
Modeling Crowds 301
Different Type of Models 301
Floor Field Model and its Extensions 302
Basic Update Rules 303
Resolution of Conflicts 304
Calculation of the Static Field in Arbitrary Geometries 304
Contraction at a Wide Exit 306
Parameters and Their Physical Relevance 307
Force Field 308
Smooth Movement 309
Inertia Effect 309
Anticipation 309
Obstacles 311
Deterministic Evacuation 312
Concluding Discussions 313
References 314
Modeling Evacuees' Exit Selection with Best Response Dynamics 316
Introduction 316
The Model and a Game Theoretic Formulation 317
An N-Player Game 318
Exit Selection Model 318
Mathematical Formulation of the Model 319
Additional Features of the Model 321
Computational Results 322
Discussion 325
Acknowledgements 325
References 325
Front-to-Back Communication in a Microscopic Crowd Model 327
Introduction 327
Characterizing Front-to-Back Communication 328
Modeling Front-to-Back Communication 330
The Floor Field Model 330
The Swarm Force Model 331
Front-to-Back Communication in the Swarm Force Model 332
Laboratory Scenario 333
Who Concert Disaster Scenario 335
Reconstructing the Plaza at Riverside Coliseum 336
Analysis of the Disaster 337
Conclusion 339
References 340
Comparison of Various Methods for the Calculation of the Distance Potential Field 341
Introduction 341
Methods for the Calculation of a Distance Potential Field 342
Short Mathematical Parenthesis: Vector Norms 342
Flood Fill Methods 342
Manhattan Metric 342
Chessboard Metric 343
Variant 1: Combination of Manhattan and Chessboard 343
Variant 2: 2 over Corners 344
Variant 3: Larger Neighborhoods 345
Dijkstra's Algorithm on a Visibility Graph 345
Ray Casting 345
Other Methods of Error Reduction 346
Analytical Considerations 346
Errors for Manhattan and Chessboard Metric 346
Error for Variant 1 (Combination) 347
Error for Variant 2 (2 over Corners) 348
Computation Times 349
Geometries 349
Results 349
Conclusions 351
Acknowledgements 351
References 352
Agent-Based Simulation of Evacuation: An Office Building Case Study 353
Introduction 353
Evacuation Data Analysis 354
Evacuation Description 354
Analysis Results 355
Velocity vs. Density 355
Cumulative Characteristics of Egress 357
People Behavior 358
Simulation Model 359
Graph Decomposition 360
Conclusion 362
Acknowledgements 362
References 363
A Genetic Algorithm Module for Spatial Optimization in Pedestrian Simulation 364
Introduction 365
Initial Situation 365
Objectives 366
Requirements 366
Genetic Algorithms (GA) 367
General Definitions 367
The Evolutionary Model 367
Use of GA Framework 367
Realization of the Optimization Module 368
Data Structure 368
Mapping 369
Assessment Criteria 370
Graphical User Interface (GUI) 371
Visualization 371
Interaction 372
Managing Plans 372
Performance 373
Tests 373
Results 374
Outlook 374
Acknowledgements 374
References 375
Opinion Formation and Propagation Induced by Pedestrian Flow 376
Introduction 376
Model 378
Simulation and Analysis 380
Conclusion 382
Acknowledgements 383
References 384
Passenger Dynamics at Airport Terminal Environment 385
Introduction 385
Trends and Challenges at Airports 385
Status Quo of Passenger Behavior 387
Airport Environment 389
Passenger Tracking Tool 391
Results 393
Gender 394
Travel Purpose-Business vs. Leisure 394
Groups 395
Baggage 396
Conclusion 397
Outlook 398
Acknowledgements 399
References 399
Application Modes of Egress Simulation 401
Introduction 401
People Movement System (ICE) 402
Six Degrees of Simulation 403
Naïve Mode 404
Operational Mode 405
Predictive Mode 406
Engineered Mode 408
Interactive Mode 409
Real-Time Mode 410
Discussion 411
Conclusion 412
References 413
Investigating the Impact of Aircraft Exit Availability on Egress Time Using Computer Simulation 414
Introduction 414
The AASK Database 415
The airEXODUS Evacuation Model 416
Exit Availability Analysis Conducted Using AASK 417
Evacuation Modelling Analysis 419
The Geometry, Model Parameters and Scenarios 419
Evacuation Simulation Results 420
Conclusions 425
References 426
Bounded Rationality Choice Model Incorporating Attribute Threshold, Mental Effort, and Risk Attitude: Illustration to Pedestrian Walking Direction Choice Decision in Shopping Streets 427
Introduction 427
Conceptual framework 429
Preference Structure 429
Decision Heuristics 430
Choice of Heuristics 432
Illustration 434
Data 434
Operationalization 435
Model Estimation 436
Conclusion 438
References 439
A SCA-Based Model for Open Crowd Aggregation 440
Introduction 440
Related Works 441
Force-Based Models 441
CA-Based Models 442
MAS-Based Models 442
SCA Approach to Pedestrian Dynamics 443
Aggregation in Open Crowds 444
Conclusion and Future Works 448
References 449
Hardware Implementation of a Crowd Evacuation Model Based on Cellular Automata 451
Introduction 451
Cellular Automata 453
Basic Characteristics of the Evacuation Model 453
Implementation of the CA Model 455
Simulation Results 460
Conclusions 462
References 462
Applying a Discrete Event System Approach to Problems of Collective Motion in Emergency Situations 464
Introduction 464
Discrete Event Systems Modeling with Petri Nets 466
DES Basic Principles 466
Fundamental Notations of Petri Nets 467
Petri Net Application to Egress Dynamics 469
PN Modules for Rooms and Gateways 469
Remarks About PN Generalization and Timing 472
The Case Study 473
Conclusion and Future Developments 475
Acknowledgements 475
References 475
SIMULEM: Introducing Goal Oriented Behaviours in Crowd Simulation 477
Introduction 477
Goal Oriented Behavioural Model 479
Model Overview 479
Interaction Concepts 480
Simulation Architecture 482
Simulation Software Upgrades 482
Simulation Configuration 483
Simulation Run 485
Results Analysis 486
Results 486
Conclusion and Future Work 487
Acknowledgements 488
References 488
Conflicts at an Exit in Pedestrian Dynamics 489
Introduction 489
Floor Field Model 490
Floor Field 490
Conflict Resolution and Friction 491
Friction Function 492
Introduction of the Friction Function 492
Average Pedestrian Outflow Through an Exit 493
Experiments 495
Comparison Between the Experiment and the Theory 497
The Effect of an Obstacle 498
Conclusion 499
Acknowledgements 500
References 500
Improving Pedestrian Dynamics Modeling Using Fuzzy Logic 501
Introduction 502
Conventional vs Pattern Recognition PDR Navigation 502
State of the Art Solutions in Gait Analysis 502
Gait Analysis 503
Step Type Classification 504
Stride Length Computation 505
Tests and Results 506
Conclusion 506
References 506
Modeling the Link Volume Counts as a Function of Temporally Dependent OD-Flows 507
Introduction 507
Data Sets 508
The Proposed Model 509
Discussion of the Model 511
References 512
Effect of Subconscious Behavior on Pedestrian Counterflow in a Lattice Gas Model Under Open Boundary Conditions 514
Introduction 514
Outline of Model 515
Simulation Results and Discussions 516
Conclusions 518
References 519
Hand-Calculation Methods for Evacuation Calculation-Last Chance for an Old-Fashioned Approach or a Real Alternative to Microscopic Simulation Tools? 520
Analysis of a High-Rise Building with Microscopic and Macroscopic Models 520
Results of Commercial Software Tools 520
Results of Macroscopic Hand-Calculation Methods 521
Analysis of a Theoretical School Building with Microscopic and Macroscopic Models 522
Results of Commercial Software Tools 523
Results of Macroscopic Hand-Calculation Methods 523
Conclusion 524
References 525
Adding Higher Intelligent Functions to Pedestrian Agent Model 526
Introduction 526
Pedestrian Modeling Platform for Hybrid Space Representation System 527
Introducing Artisoc 527
ASPF(Agent Simulator of Pedestrian Flow) ver.4-Implementation of Autonomous Pedestrian Agent 528
Concluding Remarks-ASSA Project as Further Study 531
References 532
"FlowTech" and "EvaTech": Two Computer-Simulation Methods for Evacuation Calculation 533
"FlowTech". Flow Movement Modeling 533
Workflow with FlowTech 534
Evacuation Simulation Example: WTC1 536
Future Work 536
"EvaTech". Individual Movement Modeling 536
Pedestrian Movement 538
Human Behavior 538
EvaTech Model Validation 539
Future Work 540
References 540
Large Scale Microscopic Evacuation Simulation 542
Introduction 542
Simulation Framework 543
Results 545
Conclusions 546
References 547
Numerical Optimisation Techniques Applied to Evacuation Analysis 549
Introduction 549
The Methodology 550
Demonstration Problem 551
The Solution 552
The Design Variables 552
Results and Discussion 553
Concluding Comments 554
Acknowledgements 554
References 554
A Multi-Method Approach to the Interpretation of Pedestrian Spatio-Temporal Behaviour 556
Introduction 556
Methodology 557
Heuristic Phase 558
Initial Results 559
Example Results Based on Motion Data 559
Conclusion 561
References 561
The Microscopic Model and the Panicking Ball-Bearing 562
Introduction 562
Panic 563
Panic in Microscopic Models 563
Microscopic Human Factors 564
Microscopic Human Factors in the Floor Field Model 565
Conclusion 567
References 568
Design of Decision Rules for Crowd Controlling Using Macroscopic Pedestrian Flow Simulation 569
Introduction 569
Control Concept 570
Macroscopic Simulation Model 571
Measurement Error Characteristics 572
Design of Decision Rules 573
Conclusion 574
References 574
3-Tier Architecture for Pedestrian Agent in Crowd Simulation 576
Introduction 576
How the Issue Raised 577
Conflicts in Path Planning 577
Realistic Movement 578
Long-Distance Pathfinding 578
Structure of the Architecture 579
Event Flow Control Tier 579
Navigation Tier 580
Pedestrian Dynamics Tier 582
Computer Experiments 583
Finger Effect 583
Edge Effect 583
Case Study with "Dead End" 584
Conclusions 584
References 585
Optimising Vessel Layout Using Human Factors Simulation 587
Introduction 587
Methodology for Assessing Human Factors Performance 588
The Components of the Human Performance Metric 588
Evaluation Scenarios 589
Functional Groups 589
Performance Measures 589
Defining the Human Performance Metric 589
Demonstration Application of the HPM 590
The Geometry 590
The Scenarios 590
The Simulation Software 591
Results and Analysis 591
Concluding Comments 593
References 593
Agent-Based Animated Simulation of Mass Egress Following an Improvised Explosive Device (IED) Attack 594
Venues Modeled and Software Used 594
Models' Features 595
Model Results 595
Models' Advantages and Limitations 596
Conclusions 598
References 598
A Novel Kinetic Model to Simulate Evacuation Dynamics 599
Introduction 599
Evacuation Dynamics Model 600
Problem and Model Formulation Description 600
Theoretical Model Formulation: The Kinetic Model of Evacuation 602
Model Simulation Studies and Comparison Results 604
Conclusion 605
Acknowledgements 605
References 605
Egress Route Choice Modelling-Concepts and Applications 607
Introduction 607
Egress Route Choice Mechanisms Implemented in ASERI 608
Applications 612
References 613
Architectural Cue Model in Evacuation Simulation for Underground Space 614
Introduction 614
Architectural Cue Model for Underground Space Evacuation 616
Research Method 617
CAVE-Based Conjoint Analysis 617
Attributes of the Architectural Cues 618
The Design of Scenes with Paired Cues 619
Encoding and Decoding 619
Experiment 620
The Experiment Facilities 621
The Experiment Procedure 621
Analyzes 622
The Model Performance 623
The Attributes of Architectural Cues 623
Preference Between Stair and Exit 626
Conclusions 626
Outlook 626
References 627
Integrating Strategies in Numerical Modelling of Crowd Motion 628
Introduction 628
From Spontaneous to Actual Velocity 628
Notations 629
Handling of Contacts 629
Examples of Spontaneous Velocity 629
Shortest Path 629
Individual Strategies 630
Numerical Results 631
References 633
Small-Grid Analysis of Evacuation Processes with a Lattice Gas Model for Mixed Pedestrian Dynamics 634
Introduction 634
Simulation and Results 635
Conclusions 638
References 639
Evacuation Simulation and Human Behaviour Models in Tall Buildings 640
Introduction 640
Building Traffic Simulator 641
Passenger Model 641
Staircase Model 641
Elevator Model 642
Human Behaviour Model for Vertical Movement 642
Macroscopic Routing Model 642
Microscopic Reaction Models 643
World Trade Centre Evacuation 644
References 645
Proof of Evacuation Routes and Safety Exits: Time Data as the Main Criteria for the Evaluation of Escape Routes and Safety Exits? 646
Settings 646
Evacuation Times 646
Investigated Study Cases 647
Simulation Models 647
Outcomes 648
Evacuation Times 648
Exit Width 649
Path Length 649
Conclusions 650
References 650
Dependence of Modelled Evacuation Times on Key Parameters and Interactions 653
Introduction 653
Methods 654
Evacuation of a Single Rectangular Retail Enclosure (2000 m2) 654
Multi-Enclosure Building (up to 10-Storeys Served Office) 655
Results 656
Retail Enclosure Evacuations 656
Results: Multi-Storey Evacuation Simulations and Experiments Simulations 658
Validation-Unannounced Evacuation Experiments 659
Conclusions 660
Conclusions from Single Enclosure Evacuations 660
Conclusions from Multi-Storey Building Evacuations 660
References 660
A Modification of the Social Force Model by Foresight 662
Introduction 662
Single Lane Walking 663
Binary Interactions from Single Lane Following 664
Single Lane Head-on Collisions 664
2D Walking 666
Conclusions 666
References 667
Models for Crowd Movement and Egress Simulation 668
Some General Remarks 668
Model Classification 669
List of Models 670
Existing Model Reviews 670
The Wiki Approach 672
Internet Resources 672
Acknowledgements 673
References 673
Modelling Pedestrian Escalator Behaviour 674
Introduction 674
Data Collection 675
Escalator Model 675
Microscopic Escalator Model 675
Escalator Model Evacuation Demonstration 676
Evacuation Results 677
Concluding Comments 679
References 680
Introducing a Coupled Model for Simulating Crowd Behaviour 681
Context of Our Model 681
Perceiving-Acting Model 681
The Model Process 683
A Perception Model 683
A Planning Model 684
Target-Achievement and Obstacle-Avoidance as Local Navigation Model 685
Stress-Sensing Model 686
Conclusions and Outlook 686
Future Work 687
Acknowledgements 687
References 687
Evacuation Modelling of Fire Scenarios in Passenger Trains 688
Introduction 688
Evacuation Cases 689
Input Data 690
Evacuation Results 691
Movement Inside the Train 691
Evacuation of the Trains 692
Conclusions 693
References 694
Pedestrian Dynamics with Event-Driven Simulation 695
Introduction 695
Social-Force Models 695
General Considerations 695
Simplified One-Dimensional Realization 696
Motivation for Event-Driven Simulation 697
Event-Driven Simulation with Velocity-Adaptation 697
Results 699
Discussion and Summary 700
References 700
Part III Psychology 701
The Need for Behavioral Theory in Evacuation Modeling 702
Introduction 702
"Behavioral Facts" 703
Building Evacuation Models 705
Behavioral Technique 1: The Behavior Is Defined Entirely by the User 705
Behavioral Technique 2: The Behavior Is Simulated Based on a Specific Condition (if-then) 706
Behavioral Technique 3: The Behavior Is Simulated Based on Multiple Factors of Influence 707
Summary 708
Benefits of Behavioral Theory 709
Conclusion 710
References 711
NO_PANIC. "Escape and Panic in Buildings"-Architectural Basic Research in the Context of Security and Safety Research 714
Motivation 714
The Five Dimensions of Architecture 716
Qualities vs. Quantities 717
Signage vs. Space 718
Towards Architectural Solutions that Support Egress 718
Avoiding Delays in Egress 719
Avoiding Dualities 719
Architectural Elements for Managing Egress 721
Conclusions 722
References 723
Was It Panic? An Overview About Mass-Emergencies and Their Origins All Over the World for Recent Years 724
Introduction 724
What Is Panic? 725
Different Definitions of Panic or Panic Attack 725
Definitions of Crush and Stampede 727
Definitions Used in this Article 727
Panic, Stampede and Crush in the Media 728
Experiments on Panic or Decision-Making Processes 728
Discussion of the Experiments Performed by French and Mintz 729
Different Mass-Emergencies in the Case of "Panic" 730
Conclusions 734
References 735
Hierarchical Structure of the Mass and Group-Level Behaviors in Urban Rail Transfer Stations 737
Introduction 737
Hierarchical Structure of URT Station Space, Passenger Service Network and Mass 738
Passenger Organization Processes 738
Hierarchical Structure of URT Stations 739
Passenger Service Network 739
The Hierarchical Structure of the Mass 741
Analysis of the Features and Behaviors of Individuals and Groups 742
Individuals 742
(1) Human Physical Features 742
(2) Environmental Features 742
(3) Psychological and Sociological Features 742
(4) Individual Behaviors 743
Groups 744
Features of Groups 744
(1) Composition 744
(2) Relationships Within a Group 745
(3) Shapes and Areas 745
(4) Mobility 745
Behaviors of Groups 745
(1) Interactions of Members 745
(2) Interactions of Groups 746
The Impacts of Groups on the Crowd 747
(1) The Form and Mobility of Groups Make the Crowd Uneven 747
(2) Groups Are More Powerful than Individuals in Conflicts 747
(3) Breaking and Regrouping of Groups Disturb the Smooth Flow 747
Process Modeling of the Mass and Simulation Framework Based on Group Level Behaviors 748
Process Modeling of the Mass 748
(1) Information Exchanging Space and Information Transmitting 749
(2) Information Updating and Behaviors of All Hierarchies 749
URT Station Mass Movement Simulation Framework 750
(1) Database 750
(2) Models 750
(3) Modules 751
Discussion 751
Acknowledgements 752
References 752
The Use of a Structure and Its Influence on Evacuation Behavior 753
Introduction 753
Information Carried by the Individual 753
Procedures Employed 754
Addressing the Situation 756
Concluding Remarks 758
References 758
Part IV Miscellaneous 759
Inhalation Injury of Lung and Heart After Inhalation of Toxic Substances 760
Introduction 760
Toxic Agents 761
Irritant Effects of Inhalant Noxious Agents 762
Ambient Air Pollution 763
Acute Smoke Injury 765
Clinical Manifestations 765
Medical Problems with Pedestrian Evacuation 766
Medical Problems in Firefighters 766
Treatment of Smoke Inhalation 767
Conclusion 767
References 768
Quantitative Comparison of International Design Standards of Escape Routes in Assembly Buildings 769
Introduction 769
General Approach 770
Flow Capacity of Exits 772
Comparison of Raw Data 773
Minimum Width of Exit Doors 773
Design Occupant Load 773
Increase of Exit Width per Occupant 774
Results 774
Exit Width Correlated with Assembly Room Area 774
Travel Times Correlated with Assembly Room Area at Design Occupant Density 775
Travel Times Correlated with Assembly Room Area at Normalized Occupant Density of 4 p/m2 776
Some Further Differences in the Codes 776
Discussion 777
Conclusions 778
Acknowledgements 778
References 779
Visualizing the Human Form for Simulation and Planning 780
Introduction 780
Background 781
Elaboration 783
Discussion of the Criteria in the Taxonomy 783
Dependencies Between Criteria in the Taxonomy 783
Conclusion 785
References 786
A Real-Time Pedestrian Animation System 787
Introduction 787
System Overview and Levels of Processing 788
Skeletal Animation Generation 789
Behavior Model Integration 790
Implementation and Results 791
Conclusion 792
References 792
Modeling of Escape Routes According to Occupancy, Economy, and Level of Safety in Slovak Republic 794
Building Description 794
Requirements for the Escape Routes 795
Calculations 795
Conclusion 797
References 798
List of Participants 799