Experimental Methodology

1. Introduction to Scientific Research

Chapter Review

Introduction

Methods

            Tenacity

            Intuition

            Authority

            Rationalism

            Empiricism

Science

            Induction

            Hypothesis Testing

            Naturalism        

                        Kuhn and Paradigms

                        Lakatos and Research Programs

                        Feyerabend’s Anarchists Theory of Science

What is Science?

Pseudoscience

            Overuse of ad hoc Hypotheses to Escape Refutation

            Absence of Self-Correction

            Reversed burden of Proof

            Emphasis on Confirmation rather than Refutation

            Overreliance on Testimonials and Anecdotal Evidence

            Use of Obscurantist language

            Absence of “Connectivity” with Other Disciplines

Advantage of Scientific Research

Characteristics of Scientific Research

            Control

            Operation

            Replication

Objectives of Scientific Research

            Description

            Explanation

            Prediction

            Control

Basic Assumption Underlying Scientific Research

            Reality in Nature

            Rationality

            Regularity

            Discoverability

The Role of Theory in Scientific Research

The Role of the Scientist in Research

            Curiosity

            Patience

            Objectivity

            Change

Summary

Key Terms and Concepts

Related Internet Sites

Practice Test

Challenge Exercises

2. Nonexperimental Research Approaches

Chapter Preview

Introduction

Nonexperimental Quantitative Research

            Correlational Study

            Ex Post Facto Study

            Longitudinal Study and Cross-Sectional Study

            Naturalistic Observation

            Meta Analysis

            The Survey

                        Methods of Data Collection

                        Questionnaire Construction

                        Response Bias

Qualitative Research

            Phenomenology

            Ethnography

                        Ethnographic Methods

                        Entry and Group Acceptance

                        Data Collection, Analysis, Report Writing

            Case Study

Summary

Key Terms and Concepts

Related Internet Sites

Practice Tests

Challenge Exercises

3. The Experimental Research Approach

Chapter Preview

Introduction

Causation

            Cause

            Effect

            Causal Relationship

The Psychological Experiment

            Advantages of the Experimental Approach

                        Causal Inference

                        Control

                        Ability of Manipulate Variables

            Disadvantages of the Experimental Approach

                        Does Not Test Effects of Nonmanipulated Variables

                        Artificiality

                        Inadequate Method of Scientific Inquiry

Experimental Research Settings

            Field Experimentation

            Laboratory Experimentation

            Internet Experiments

Summary

Key Terms and Concepts

Related Internet Sites

Practice Tests

Challenge Exercises

4. Problem Identification and Hypothesis Formation

Chapter Preview

Introduction

Sources of Research Ideas

            Everyday Life

            Practical Issues

            Past Research

            Theory

Gender Bias in Research Ideas

Ideas Not Capable of Scientific Investigation

Review of the Literature

            Getting Started

            Defining Objectives

            Doing the Search

                        Books

                        Psychological Journals

                        Computerized or Electronic Databases

                        Internet Resources

            Obtaining Resources

            Additional Information Sources

Feasibility of the Study

Formulating the Research Problem

            Defining a Research Problem

            Specificity of the Question

Formulating Hypotheses

Summary

Key Terms and Concepts

Related Internet Sites

Practice Tests

Challenge Exercises

5. Ethics

Chapter Preview

Introduction

Research Ethics: What Are They?

            Relationship between Society and Science

            Professional Issues

            Treatment of Research Participants

Ethical Dilemmas

Ethical Guidelines

            Respect for Persons and their Autonomy

            Beneficence and Nonmaleficence

            Justice

            Trust

            Fidelity and Scientific Integrity

APA Ethical Standards for Research

Ethical Issues to Consider When Conducting Research

            Institutional Approval

            Informed Consent

                        Dispensing with Informed Consent

                        Informed Consent and Minors

                        Passive versus Active Consent

            Deception

            Debriefing

            Coercion and Freedom to Decline Participation

            Confidentiality, Anonymity, and the Concept of Privacy

            Ethical Issues in Electronic Research

                        Informed Consent and Internet Research

                        Privacy and Internet Research

                        Debriefing and Internet Research

            Ethical Issues in Preparing the Research Report

                        Authorship

                        Writing the Research Report

Ethics of Animal Research

            Animal Rights

            Alternatives to the Use of Animals

            Safeguards in the Use of Animals

            Animal Research Guidelines

Summary

Key Terms and Concepts

Related Internet Sites

Practice Tests

Challenge Exercises

6. Variables Used in Experimentation

Chapter Preview

Introduction

Types of Variables

The Independent Variable

            Variation

                        Presence versus Absence

                        Amount of a Variable

                        Type of a Variable

            Establishing Variation in the Independent Variable

                        Experimental Manipulation

                        Individual Difference Manipulation

            Constructing the Independent Variable

            Number of Independent Variables

The Dependent Variable

            Response to be Used as the Dependent Variable

            Reducing Participant Error

            Number of Dependent Variables

Summary

Key Terms and Concepts

Related Internet Sites

Practice Tests

Challenge Exercises

7. Reliability and Validity in Experimental Research

Chapter Preview

Introduction

Relationship Between Reliability and Validity

Experimental Reliability

            Reliability and the Number and Identification of the Participants

            Reliability and the Ability and Characteristics of the Researcher

Reliability and the Independent Variable

Reliability and the Dependent Variable

Measurement Error

Methods of Assessing Reliability

            Successive Measurement

            Simultaneous Measurement

            Internal Consistency

Experimental Validity

Statistical Conclusion Validity

Internal Validity

            Threats to Internal Validity

                        History

                        Maturation

                        Instrumentation

                        Testing

                        Regression Artifact

                        Attrition

                        Selection

                        Additive and Interactive Effects

Summary

Key Terms and Concepts

Related Internet Sites

Practice Tests

Challenge Exercises

8. Construct and External Validity in Experimental Research

Chapter Preview

Introduction

Construct Validity

            Assessing Construct Validity

                        Content Validity

                        Criterion-Related Validity

                        Other Sources of Evidence of Construct Validity

            Threats to Construct Validity

                        Reactivity to the Experimental Situation

                                    Participant Effect

                                    Conditions Producing a Positive Self-Presentation Motive

                                    Implication for Research

                        Experimenter Effects

                                    Experimenter Attributes 

                                    Experimenter Expectancies

                                    Mediation of Expectancy

                                    Magnitude of the Expectancy Effect

External Validity

            Population Validity

            Ecological Validity

            Temporal Validity

            Treatment Variation Validity

            Outcome Validity

Cautions in Evaluating the External Validity of Experiments

Relationship Between Internal and External Validity

Summary

Key Terms and Concepts

Related Internet Sites

Practice Tests

Challenge Exercises

9. Control Techniques

Chapter Preview

Introduction

Randomization

Matching

            Matching by Holding Variables Constant

            Matching by Building the Extraneous Variable into the Research Design

            Matching by Yoked Control

            Matching by Equating Participants

                        Precision Control

                        Frequency Distribution Control

Counterbalancing

            Intrasubject Counterbalancing: The ABBA Technique

            Intragroup Counterbalancing

                        Incomplete Counterbalancing

Control of Participation Effects

            Double Blind Placebo Model

            Deception

            Procedural Control, or Control of Participant Interpretation

Control of Experimenter Effects

            Control of Recording Errors

            Control of Experimenter Attribute Errors

            Control of Experimenter Expectancy Error

                        The Blind Technique

                        The Partial Blind Technique

                        Automation

Likelihood of Achieving Control

Summary

Key Terms and Concepts

Related Internet Sites

Practice Tests

Challenge Exercises

10. Experimental Research Design

Chapter Preview

Introduction

Research Designs with Threats to Internal Validity

            One-Group Posttest-Only Design

            One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design

            Nonequivalent Posttest-Only Design

Requirements of Experimental Research Designs

Pretesting Participants

Experimental Research Designs

            Posttest-Only Design

                        Between-Participants Posttest-Only Design

                        Within-Participants Posttest-Only Design

                        Combining Between- and Within-Participants Designs

            Pretest-Posttest Design

Choice of a Research Design

            Research Question

            Control

            Between-versus Within-Participants Design

Summary

Key Terms and Concepts

Related Internet Sites

Practice Tests

Challenge Exercises

11. Quasi-Experimental Designs

Chapter Preview

Introduction

Nonequivalent Comparison Group Design

            Outcomes with Rival Hypohteses

                        Outcome I: First Increasing Treatment Effect

                        Outcome II: Increasing Treatment and Control Groups

                        Outcome III: Second Increasing Treatment Effect

                        Outcome IV: Crossover Effect

            Causal Inference from the Nonequivalent Comparison Group Design

Time-Series Design

            Interrupted Time-Series Design

Regression Discontinuity Design

Summary

Key Terms and Concepts

Related Internet Sites

Practice Tests

Challenge Exercises

12. Single-Case Research Designs

Chapter Preview

Introduction

Single-Case Designs

            ABA Design

            Interaction Design

            Multiple-Baseline Design

            Changing-Criterion Design

Methodological Considerations in Using Single-Case Designs

            Baseline

            Changing One Variable at a Time

            Length of Phases

Criteria for Evaluating Change

            Experimental Criterion

            Therapeutic Criterion

Rival Hypotheses

Summary

Key Terms and Concepts

Related Internet Sites

Practice Tests

Challenge Exercises

13. Data Collection

Chapter Preview

Introduction

Research Participants

            Obtaining Animals (Rats)

            Obtaining Human Participants    

            Gender Bias

Sample Size

            Power

Apparatus and/or Instruments

Instructions

Scheduling of Research Participants

Procedure

            Pilot Study

Institutional Approval

Data Collection

Consent to Participate

Debriefing, or Postexperimental Interview

            Debriefing Functions

            How to Debrief

Summary

Key Terms and Concepts

Related Internet Sites

Practice Tests

Challenge Exercises

14. Hypothesis Testing

Chapter Preview

Introduction

Testing the Hypothesis

The Mean

Standard Deviation

Selection of a Statistical Test

Independent Samples t-Test

Significance Level

Analysis of Variance

            One-Way Analysis of Variance

            Analysis of Variance Summary Table

            Interpreting the Results of the Analysis of Variance

            Two-Way Analysis of Variance

            Rejecting versus Failing to Reject the Null Hypothesis

Potential Error in the Statistical Decision-Making Process

Correlation

            Computation in Correlation

            Interpretation of Correlation

Summary

Key Terms and Concepts

Related Internet Sites

Practice Tests

Challenge Exercises

15. The Research Report

Chapter Preview

Introduction

The APA Format

Preparation of the Research Report

            Writing Style

            Language

                        Specificity

                        Labels

                        Participation

                        Specific Issues

            Editorial Style

                        Italics

                        Abbreviation

                        Headings

                        Quotations

                        Numbers

                        Physical Measurements

                        Presentation of Statistical Results

                        Tables

                        Figures

                        Figure Captions

                        Reference Citations

                        Reference List

                        Typing

                        Ordering of Manuscript Pages

Submission of the Research Report for Publication

            Acceptance of the Manuscript

Presenting Research Results at Professional Conferences

            Oral Presentation

            Poster Presentation

Summary

Key Terms and Concepts

Related Internet Sites

Appendices

A. Answers to Practice Tests

B. Critical Values of t

C. The 5 Percent and 1 Percent Values for the F-Distribution

D. Table of Random Numbers

References

 

Index