Trauma Bonding and Interpersonal Crimes

JOAN A. REID, PHD, LMHC is Professor of Criminology and Director of the University of South Florida Trafficking in Persons (TIP) Risk to Resilience Research Lab. Dr. Reid has authored more than 70 publications primarily focused on the sex trafficking of girls and boys in the United States. She has appeared as a citing authority in human trafficking cases in various State Supreme Courts and an amicus brief related to the U.S. Supreme Court case Jane Doe vs. Backpage. As a licensed mental health counselor, Reid provides psychotherapy to rape, sexual abuse, and sex trafficking survivors.

Foreword xi

Preface xiii

About the Author xv

Notes on Contributors xvii

1 Introduction to Trauma Bonding 1
Joan A. Reid

Book Overview 1

A Survivor’s Voice 2

Terminology and Contexts 4

Outline of the Following Chapters 5

References 9

2 General Theories of Trauma Bonding 11
Joan A. Reid and Sarah M. Gardy

Overview 11

Reports from Survivors and Practitioners 12

Psychological Theories of Trauma Bonding 13

Attachment Theory and Trauma Bonding Theory 13

Cognitive Theory and Trauma Bonding 15

Evolutionary Theory and Trauma Bonding 16

Neurobiological Theories of Trauma Bonding 17

Conclusion 19

Suggestions for Further Reading 19

Discussion Questions 20

References 20

3 Measures of Trauma Bonding 23
Joan A. Reid

Introduction 23

Purpose of Psychological Measures and Screening Tools 24

Best Practices for Measure Development 25

Benefits of Trauma Bonding Measures 27

Validation of Available Measures of Trauma Bonding 28

The Stockholm Syndrome Scale 28

Index of Post-Traumatic Stress 31

Trauma Symptom Inventory-2 32

Conclusion 32

Suggestions for Further Reading 33

Discussion Questions 33

References 34

4 Trauma Bonding and Intimate Partner Violence 37
Joan A. Reid

Introduction 37

Case Studies 39

Formation of Trauma Bonds in the Context of Intimate Partner Violence 39

What Is Intimate Partner Violence 39

The Function of Abuse in the Formation of Trauma Bonds 44

Review of Theoretical Concepts Related to IPV and Trauma Bonding 45

Review of Research Studies Investigating Trauma Bonding and Intimate Partner Violence 47

Conclusion 49

Suggestions for Further Reading 49

Discussion Questions 50

References 50

5 Trauma Bonding and Childhood Sexual Abuse 55
Klejdis Bilali and Joan A. Reid

Introduction 55

Voices from the Field 56

Formation of Trauma Bonds in the Context of Child Sexual Abuse 57

What Is Child Sexual Abuse? 57

Formation of Trauma Bonds in CSA Contexts 58

Unique Vulnerabilities of Children to Trauma Bonds 58

Child Sexual Grooming and Trauma Bonding 60

Intrafamilial versus Extrafamilial CSA and Trauma Bonds 61

Trauma Bonding and Intrafamilial CSA 62

Trauma Bonding and Extrafamilial CSA 64

Theoretical Conceptualizations of Trauma Bonding in the Context of CSA 67

Attachment Theory 67

Child Sexual Abuse Accommodation Syndrome (CSAAS) 69

Gaps in Research 72

Conclusion 73

Suggestions for Further Reading 74

Discussion Questions 74

References 75

6 Trauma Bonding and Human Trafficking 81
Joan A. Reid

Introduction 81

Case Study 83

Subject Data 83

Exposure to Violence and Sexual Assault During Childhood 83

Coerced into Selling Sex 84

Batterer–Trafficker Tactics Related to Trauma Bonding 84

Trauma-Related Symptoms and Relational Dysfunction 85

Case Summary 86

Formation of Trauma Bonds in the Context of Human Trafficking 86

Trauma Bonding among Child and Adolescent Victims of Sex Trafficking 86

Childhood and Developmental Vulnerabilities Linked to Human Trafficking 86

Conditions of Trauma Bonding and Child Victims of Sex Trafficking 87

Trauma Bonding and Adult Victims of Sex Trafficking 89

Varied Pathways into Sex Trafficking for Adults 89

Legislative Barriers for Adult Victims of Human Trafficking 90

Complexities of Identifying Trauma Bonds in the Context of Adult Sex Trafficking 91

Trauma Bonds and Additional Forms of Human Trafficking 92

Conclusion 93

Suggestions for Further Reading 93

Discussion Questions 94

References 94

7 Trauma Bonding and Hostage-Taking/Kidnapping 99
Klejdis Bilali, Emily D. Walker, and Joan A. Reid

Introduction 99

Case Study: Elizabeth Smart 100

Origins of the Term “Stockholm Syndrome” 101

Formation of Trauma Bonds in the Context of Hostage-Taking/Kidnapping 103

Elements and Conditions of Trauma Bonding in Kidnapping/ Hostage-Taking 103

Victim Characteristics and Trauma Bonding 105

Perpetrator Tactics Related to Trauma Bonding 107

Authority Response 109

Unraveling a Trauma Bond 111

Conclusion 114

Suggestions for Further Reading and Viewing 115

Discussion Questions 115

References 116

8 Trauma Bonding and Cults 121
Klejdis Bilali, Emily D. Walker, and Joan A. Reid

Introduction 121

Case Study: NXIVM 129

Formation of Trauma Bonds in the Context of Cults 130

Unraveling Trauma Bonds Following Cult Exit 134

Conclusion 136

Suggestions for Further Reading, Viewing, and Listening 137

Discussion Questions 137

References 138

9 Trauma Bonding Among Gangs and Terrorist Groups 141
Sarah M. Gardy and Joan A. Reid

Introduction 141

Case Study 142

Subject Data 142

History of Loss and Abandonment 142

Coerced into Selling Sex 142

Trauma-Related Symptoms and Relational Dysfunction 143

Case Summary 144

The Formation of Trauma Bonds in Criminal Gangs 144

Gang Grooming and Trauma Bonding 145

Terror Groups and Trauma Bonding 146

Theory of Trauma Bonding Among Criminal Groups 147

Complexities of Trauma Bonding and Rehabilitation 148

Conclusion 150

Suggestions for Further Reading 151

Discussion Questions 151

References 152

10 Treatment Challenges Related to Trauma Bonding 157
Joan A. Reid

Introduction 157

Case Study 158

Case Presentation 158

Treatment Progress 159

Case Closure and Summary 159

Consequences of Interpersonal Violence 160

Interpersonal Violence and Mental Health Disorders 160

Interpersonal Violence and Physical Injuries 162

Comorbidity and Diagnostic Overshadowing 163

Treatment Complexities Related to Trauma Bonding 164

Victim Identification 164

Concerns Regarding “Victim” Labeling 167

Separating from the Abuser 167

Client Safety and Self-Determination 168

Trauma-Informed Treatment Recommendations 169

Recommended Treatment Modalities 169

Trauma-Informed Practices for Trauma Bonding 170

Conclusion 171

Suggestions for Further Reading 172

Discussion Questions 173

References 173

11 Trauma Bonding and the Law 179
Emily D. Walker and Joan A. Reid

Introduction 179

Case Study: Patty Hearst 180

Subject Data 180

Background of the Case 180

Evidence of Trauma Bonding 181

Outcome of Case 181

Review of Case Law and Legislation Governing Expert Witness Testimony 181

The Frye Standard 182

The Daubert Standard 182

Kumho Tire Co. v. Carmichael 183

Federal Rules of Evidence 183

Current Use of Trauma Bonding in the Legal System 184

Trauma Bonding and Defense of Victim–Defendants 185

Trauma Bonding and Prosecution of Offenders 186

Trauma Bonding and Child Abuse Cases 187

Trauma Bonding and Human Trafficking 188

Barriers to the Use of Trauma Bonding as a Legal Strategy 188

Potential Applications of Trauma Bonding within the Legal System 190

Gaps in Research 191

Conclusion 192

Suggestions for Further Reading 192

Discussion Questions 193

References 193

12 A Way Forward 197
Joan A. Reid

Author Postlude 197

A Way-Forward SWOT Analysis 198

Results of the SWOT Analysis 199

Strengths 199

Weaknesses 202

Opportunities 203

Threats 203

Conclusion 204

References 205

Index 209