Cognition

Thomas A. Farmer, Ph.D., is currently a Lecturer in the Department of Psychology at California State University, Fullerton. He has 20+ years of research experience in the cognitive sciences, and nearly as many years of experience teaching topics related to cognition and experimental psychology. Dr. Farmer has been responsible for the updating and revision of Cognition since Dr. Margaret Matlin’s retirement, and thus shares authorship of this 11th edition of the book.

Preface xv

1 Introduction to Cognitive Psychology 1

Chapter Introduction 1

Cognitive Psychology: Overview 1

Origins of Cognitive Psychology 4

Wilhelm Wundt 4

Early Memory Researchers 5

William James 5

Behaviorism 5

Edward Tolman 6

The Gestalt Approach 7

Cognitive Revolution 7

Cognitive Psychology More Recently 8

Perspectives on Cognitive Psychology 9

The Computer Metaphor of the Mind and Information Processing 9

The Connectionist Approach 11

Cognitive Neuroscience 12

Textbook Overview 12

Chapter Preview 13

Themes in the Book 14

Theme 1: Cognitive processes are active rather than passive 14

Theme 2: Cognitive processes are remarkably efficient and accurate 14

Theme 3: Cognitive processes handle positive information better than negative information 14

Theme 4: Cognitive processes are interrelated with one another; they do not operate in isolation 14

Theme 5: Many cognitive processes rely on both bottom-up and top-down processing 15

How to Use Your Book Effectively 15

Chapter Outline 15

Chapter Introductions 15

Demonstrations 15

“Focus on Methodology” Boxes 16

Application 16

Section Summaries 16

End of Chapter Review Questions 16

Keywords 16

Keywords List and Glossary 16

Recommended Readings 17

Section Summary Points 17

Chapter Review Questions 17

Keywords 18

Recommended Readings 18

2 Visual and Auditory Recognition 19

Chapter Introduction 19

Overview of Visual Object Recognition 20

The Visual System 20

Organization in Visual Perception 22

Theories of Visual Object Recognition 23

Feature-Analysis Theory 23

The Recognition-by-Components Theory 25

Top-Down Processing and Visual Object Recognition 28

Bottom-Up Versus Top-Down Processing 28

Top-Down Processing and Reading 29

“Smart Mistakes” in Object Recognition 30

Change Blindness 30

Inattentional Blindness 32

Specialized Visual Recognition Processes 33

Neuroscience Research on Face Recognition 33

Applied Research on Face Recognition 34

Speech Perception 36

Characteristics of Speech Perception 37

Word Boundaries 37

Variability in Phoneme Pronunciation 37

Context and Speech Perception 38

Visual Cues as an Aid to Speech Perception 38

Theories of Speech Perception 39

The Special Mechanism Approach 39

The General Mechanism Approaches 40

Section Summary Points 40

Chapter Review Questions 41

Keywords 42

Recommended Readings 42

3 Attention and Consciousness 43

Chapter Introduction 43

Overview of Attention 44

Divided Attention 44

Selective Attention 45

Dichotic Listening 45

The Stroop Effect 46

Visual Search 48

Neuroscience of Attention 50

The Orienting Attention Network 50

The Executive Attention Network 52

Theories of Attention 52

Early Theories of Attention 52

Feature-Integration Theory 53

Consciousness 55

Thought Suppression 56

Blindsight 57

Mindfulness Meditation 57

Section Summary Points 58

Chapter Review Questions 59

Keywords 59

Recommended Readings 60

4 Working Memory 61

Chapter Introduction 61

Classical Research on Short-Term Memory 62

Short-Term Memory Capacity Limits 62

The Brown/Peterson & Peterson Technique 63

The Serial-Position Effect 63

Semantic Similarity of the Items in Short-Term Memory 65

Atkinson–Shiffrin Model of Information Processing 66

The Turn to Working Memory 67

Evidence for Components with Independent Capacities 69

Phonological Loop 69

Neuroscience Research on the Phonological Loop 70

Visuospatial Sketchpad 71

Research on the Visuospatial Sketchpad 72

Neuroscience Research on the Visuospatial Sketchpad 72

Central Executive 73

Characteristics of the Central Executive 73

The Central Executive and Daydreaming 73

Neuroscience Research on the Central Executive 74

Recent Views of the Central Executive 74

Episodic Buffer 75

Applications of Working Memory 76

Working Memory and Academic Performance 76

Working Memory Abilities in Clinical Populations 77

Working Memory and Major Depression 77

Working Memory and ADHD 78

Working Memory and Generalized Anxiety Disorder 79

Summary 79

Section Summary Points 79

Chapter Review Questions 80

Keywords 81

Recommended Readings 81

5 Long-Term Memory 82

Chapter Introduction 82

Overview of Long-Term Memory 83

Encoding in Long-Term Memory 83

Levels of Processing 84

Levels of Processing and Memory for General Material 84

Levels of Processing and the Self-Reference Effect 85

Encoding-Specificity Principle 86

Research on Encoding Specificity 86

Levels of Processing and Encoding Specificity 87

Emotions Mood and Memory 88

Retrieval in Long-Term Memory 90

Explicit Versus Implicit Memory Tasks 90

Anxiety Disorders and Explicit and Implicit Memory Tasks 92

Individuals with Amnesia 92

Expertise 93

The Context-Specific Nature of Expertise 94

How Do Experts and Novices Differ? 94

Autobiographical Memory 95

Schemas and Autobiographical Memory 95

Source Monitoring and Reality Monitoring 96

Flashbulb Memories 97

Eyewitness Testimony 98

Example of Inappropriate Eyewitness Testimony 98

The Post-Event Misinformation Effect 99

Factors Affecting the Accuracy of Eyewitness Testimony 100

The Relationship Between Memory Confidence and Memory Accuracy 101

The Recovered-Memory/False-Memory Controversy 101

The Two Contrasting Positions in the Controversy 101

The Potential for Memory Errors 102

Arguments for False Memory 102

Arguments for Recovered Memory 103

Both Perspectives Are At Least Partially Correct 103

Section Summary Points 104

Chapter Review Questions 105

Keywords 105

Recommended Readings 105

6 Memory Strategies and Metacognition 106

Chapter Introduction 106

Absentmindedness and Strategies for Avoiding It 106

Memory Strategies Involving Practice and Mnemonics 108

Memory Strategies Emphasizing Practice 108

Distributed-Practice Effect 109

Testing Effect 109

Test Anxiety 110

Mnemonics Using Imagery and Organization 111

Imagery 111

Organization 112

Improving Prospective Memory 114

Comparing Prospective and Retrospective Memory 114

Absentmindedness and Prospective Memory Failures 115

Suggestions for Improving Prospective Memory 115

Metamemory 116

Accuracy of Metamemory 117

Estimating the Accuracy for Total Score Versus the Accuracy for

Individual Items 117

Estimating the Score Immediately Versus After a Delay 118

Metamemory About Factors Affecting Memory Accuracy 118

Metamemory and the Regulation of Study Strategies 119

Allocating Time When the Task Is Easy 119

Allocating Time When the Task Is Difficult 119

Conclusions About the Regulation of Study Strategies 119

Tip-of-the-Tongue and Feeling-of-Knowing Effects 120

Tip-of-the-Tongue Effect 120

Feeling of Knowing 121

Metacomprehension 121

Metacomprehension Accuracy 122

Improving Metacomprehension 123

Section Summary Points 124

Chapter Review Questions 124

Keywords 125

Recommended Readings 125

Answer to Demonstration 6.4 125

7 Mental Imagery and Cognitive Maps 126

Chapter Introduction 126

Classical Research on Visual Imagery 127

Overview of Mental Imagery 127

Mental Rotation 128

Subsequent Behavioral Research on Mental Rotation 130

The Imagery Debate 130

Cognitive Neuroscience Research on Visual Mental Imagery Tasks 131

Visual Imagery and Ambiguous Figures 132

Summary 134

Factors That Influence Visual Imagery 134

Distance and Shape Effects on Visual Imagery 134

Visual Imagery and Interference 135

Individual Differences in Mental Imagery 136

Verbalizers versus Visualizers 136

Gender Comparisons in Spatial Ability 136

Auditory Imagery 139

Auditory Imagery and Pitch 139

Auditory Imagery and Timbre 140

Cognitive Maps 140

Distance and Shape Effects on Cognitive Maps 142

Cognitive Maps and Shape 144

Relative Position Effects on Cognitive Maps 144

The Rotation Heuristic 144

The Alignment Heuristic 145

Creating a Cognitive Map 146

The Spatial Framework Model 146

The Situated Cognition Approach 147

Section Summary Points 148

Chapter Review Questions 149

Keywords 149

Recommended Readings 149

8 General Knowledge 150

Chapter Introduction 150

Background and Approaches to Semantic Memory 150

Background Information 151

Prototype Approach 152

Characteristics of Prototypes 154

Levels of Categorization 155

Conclusions About the Prototype Approach 156

Exemplar Approach 156

Comparing the Prototype and Exemplar Approaches 158

Network Models 158

The Collins and Loftus Network Model 159

Anderson’s ACT-R Approach 160

The Parallel Distributed Processing Approach 161

Schemas and Scripts 165

Background on Schemas and Scripts 166

Identifying the Script in Advance 166

Memory Selection 167

Boundary Extension 168

Memory Abstraction 169

The Constructive Approach 169

The Pragmatic Approach 171

The Current Status of Schemas and Memory Abstraction 172

Memory Integration 172

The Classic Research on Memory Integration 172

Section Summary Points 173

Chapter Review Questions 173

Keywords 174

Recommended Readings 174

Answer to Demonstration 8.8 174

9 Language I: Introduction to Language and Language Comprehension 175

Chapter Introduction 175

Overview of Psycholinguistics 176

Background on Language 176

Basic Facts About Human Language 177

A Brief History of Psycholinguistics 177

Chomsky’s Approach 178

Reactions to Chomsky’s Theory 178

Psycholinguistic Theories That Emphasize Meaning 179

Sentence Comprehension 180

Negation 180

Syntactic Complexity 180

Lexical and Syntactic Ambiguity 182

Lexical Ambiguity 182

Syntactic Ambiguity 182

Good-Enough Processing 184

Brain and Language 185

General Considerations 185

Aphasia 185

Revisiting Broca’s Area 186

Hemispheric Specialization 188

The Mirror System 189

Reading 190

Comparing Written and Spoken Language 190

Eye Movements During Reading 191

Reading Words: Theoretical Approaches 192

The Direct-Access Route 193

The Indirect-Access Route 193

Implications for Teaching Reading to Children 194

Section Summary Points 196

Chapter Review Questions 197

Keywords 197

Recommended Readings 197

Answer to Demonstration 9.1 198

10 Language II: Language Production and Bilingualism 199

Chapter Introduction 199

Language Production: Speaking 200

Producing a Word 200

Producing a Sentence 202

Producing Discourse 202

The Role of Gesture During Communication 203

Language Production: Writing 205

The Role of Working Memory in Writing 206

Planning a Formal Writing Assignment 207

Sentence Generation During Writing 207

The Revision Phase of Writing 208

Bilingualism and Second Language Learning 208

Background on Bilingualism 208

Advantages (and Minor Disadvantages) of Bilingualism 210

Second Language Learning 212

Vocabulary 212

Phonology 213

Grammar 213

Simultaneous Interpreters 214

Section Summary Points 216

Chapter Review Questions 216

Keywords 217

Recommended Readings 217

11 Problem Solving and Creativity 218

Chapter Introduction 218

Understanding the Problem 219

Methods of Representing the Problem 220

Symbols 220

Matrices 221

Diagrams 221

Visual Images 222

Perspectives on Problem Solving 222

Situated Cognition 223

Embodied Cognition 223

Problem-Solving Strategies 224

The Analogy Approach 224

The Means-Ends Heuristic 225

The Hill-Climbing Heuristic 226

Factors That Influence Problem Solving 227

Expertise 227

Mental Set 228

Functional Fixedness 229

Gender Stereotypes and Math Problem Solving 230

Problem Type: Insight Versus Noninsight Problems 231

Metacognition During Problem Solving 232

Advice About Problem Solving 232

Creativity 233

The Nature of Creativity 233

Motivation and Creativity 234

Section Summary Points 236

Chapter Review Questions 236

Keywords 237

Recommended Readings 237

Answer to Demonstration 11.3 237

Answer to Demonstration 11.5 237

Answer to Demonstration 11.6B 238

Answer to Demonstration 11.7A 238

Answer to Demonstration 11.7B 238

12 Deductive Reasoning and Decision Making 239

Chapter Introduction 239

Deductive Reasoning 240

Overview of Conditional Reasoning 240

Factors That Cause Difficulty in Reasoning 242

Biases and Deductive Reasoning 243

Belief-Bias Effect 243

Confirmation Bias 244

Heuristics and Decision Making 245

Representativeness Heuristic 246

Sample Size and Representativeness 247

Base Rate and Representativeness 247

The Conjunction Fallacy and Representativeness 248

Availability Heuristic 250

Recency and Familiarity Effects 250

The Recognition Heuristic 251

Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristic 251

Research on the Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristic 252

Estimating Confidence Intervals 253

Current Status of Heuristics and Decision Making 253

Applications of Decision-Making Research 254

Framing Effect 254

The Wording of a Question and the Framing Effect 255

Overconfidence About Decisions 256

General Studies on Overconfidence 256

Overconfidence About Completing Projects on Time 257

Reasons for Overconfidence 257

Hindsight Bias 258

Explanations for the Hindsight Bias 258

Decision-Making Style and Psychological Well-Being 259

Section Summary Points 260

Chapter Review Questions 261

Keywords 261

Recommended Readings 261

Answer to Demonstration 12.1 262

Answer to Demonstration 12.6 262

13 Cognitive Development Throughout the Lifespan 263

Chapter Introduction 263

The Lifespan Development of Memory 263

Memory in Infants 264

Memory in Children 266

Children’s Working Memory 267

Children’s Long-Term Memory 267

Children’s Memory Strategies 269

Children’s Eyewitness Testimony 271

Children’s Intellectual Abilities and Eyewitness Testimony 272

Memory in Older Adults 273

Working Memory in Older Adults 273

Long-Term Memory in Older Adults 274

Explanations for Age Differences in Memory 275

The Lifespan Development of Metamemory 276

Metamemory in Children 276

Children’s Understanding of How Memory Works 276

Children’s Awareness That Effort Is Necessary 277

Children’s Judgments About Their Memory Performance 277

Children’s Metamemory: The Relationship Between Metamemory and Memory Performance 278

Metamemory in Older Adults 279

Beliefs About Memory 279

Memory Monitoring 279

Awareness of Memory Problems 280

The Development of Language 280

Language in Infants 280

Speech Perception During Infancy 281

Language Comprehension During Infancy 281

Language Production During Infancy 282

Adults’ Language to Infants 283

Can Infants Learn Language from a DVD? 283

Language in Children 284

Words 284

Morphology 285

Syntax 286

Section Summary Points 286

Chapter Review Questions 287

Keywords 288

Recommended Readings 288

Glossary G-1

References R-1

Index I-1