Early Computing in Britain (eBook)

Preface and Introduction 6
A Reader’s Guide 8
Acknowledgements 10
Contents 11
1 The Small Seeds of Innovation 16
1.1 Post-war Britain 16
1.2 Old-Style Computing 17
1.3 Ferranti Ltd. in the UK’s Industrial Context 19
1.4 Ferranti: A Powerhouse of the Northwest 22
1.5 A Baby Is Born 24
1.6 The Amazingly Brief MOS Contract 29
1.7 The Wider Context 33
References 33
2 Academic/Industrial Collaboration: From Chorlton-on-Medlock to Moston, and Back 35
2.1 The University Waits: People and Places 35
2.2 The Moston Team Gets to Work 40
2.3 The New Computing Machine Laboratory 45
2.4 The Giant Arrives 46
2.5 The Laboratory Prepares for Serious Users 50
2.6 External Users Arrive 52
2.7 Applications in Science, Engineering and Commerce 55
2.8 Music, Games and Romance 57
2.9 Getting Serious 61
References 62
3 Canada Calling: Toronto Gets a Mark I 63
3.1 The Ministry of Supply Needs Some Computers 63
3.2 The Canadian Computing Scene 65
3.3 UTEC: Toronto’s Home-Grown Computer 68
3.4 Toronto Orders a Ferranti Computer 70
3.5 FERUT’s Sea Voyage from Manchester to Toronto 73
3.6 Continuing Links with Manchester 76
3.7 The Saint Lawrence Seaway Calculations 78
3.8 FERUT in Action 80
3.9 The End of FERUT 83
References 84
4 A Star Is Born: Ideas and Upgrades 86
4.1 The Tin Hut 86
4.2 John Bennett Calls for Change 91
4.3 Reactions from Chorlton-on-Medlock and Cheltenham 92
4.4 Christopher Strachey’s Rocket 94
4.5 Moston’s Star Twinkles 97
4.6 London’s Star: A Different Galaxy 100
References 106
5 Into the Market 107
5.1 The Players and the Stage 108
5.2 Indecisions and the Three MOS Installations 110
5.3 The Wider Market: NRDC’s Encouragement 111
5.4 The Dutch and the Italians Come Calling 115
5.5 The Competition 117
5.6 Ferranti’s Aerospace Sales Efforts 120
5.7 Commercial Data-Processing 124
5.8 The Drift Away from Moston 129
References 133
6 The AVRO Mark I* Installation at Chadderton 134
6.1 A. V. Roe at Chadderton, Manchester 134
6.2 Avro’s Computing Environment, Digital and Analogue 135
6.3 Personal Anecdotes of Computing at Chadderton 138
6.4 The Silent Slave 143
6.5 System Software and Applications Programs 145
6.6 The End of the Ferranti Mark I* at Avro 146
6.7 What came next at Chadderton and Woodford? 151
References 153
7 The Mark I* at Armstrong Siddeley, Ansty, Coventry 154
7.1 Reluctance at Armstrong Siddeley Motors 154
7.2 Enthusiasm Grows 155
7.3 Installation and Maintenance 157
7.4 The Programmers at Armstrong Siddeley 161
7.5 Integrating Computing Within the Company’s Activities 163
7.6 Applications 164
7.7 Acquiring a Second Mark I* 166
7.8 What Came Next? 168
References 170
8 The Ferranti Mark I* Installation in Amsterdam 171
8.1 KSLA, the Shell Company’s Laboratories in Amsterdam 171
8.2 Shell’s Search for a Digital Computer 172
8.3 The MIRACLE Arrives 175
8.4 MIRACLE Gets to Work and Expands 180
8.5 Lidy’s Story 185
8.6 The End of MIRACLE and What Followed 189
References 192
9 The Ferranti Mark I* Installation in Rome 193
9.1 The Italian Scenario 193
9.2 INAC and FINAC in Rome 194
9.3 FINAC at Work 200
9.4 The Wider Picture 206
9.5 How Did It All End? 207
References 209
10 GCHQ Cheltenham’s Mark I* 210
10.1 US and UK SIGINT at the Start of the Cold War 210
10.2 The Possibilities of General-Purpose Computers 212
10.3 Comparing ATLAS and ABNER with the Ferranti Mark I* 216
10.3.1 The ERA ATLAS Project 216
10.3.2 The ASA ABNER Project 217
10.3.3 Technical Comparisons of the Three Computers 219
10.4 GCHQ’s Links with UK Industry, Especially Ferranti Ltd 221
10.5 Delivery of CLEOPATRA, GCHQ’s Ferranti Mark I* 224
10.6 The Possible Applications of CLEOPATRA 227
10.7 Comparative Rates of Computation: Oedipus 230
10.8 What Followed CLEOPATRA at Cheltenham? 231
References 232
11 The Mark I* at the Armaments Research Development Establishment, Fort Halstead 234
11.1 Armaments Research, Pre-war and Post-war 234
11.2 Arranging the Purchase of a Computer for Fort Halstead 235
11.3 Installation of AMOS Early Computing Activity
11.4 The Maturing Applications of AMOS 239
11.5 COSMOS, A Compatible Successor to AMOS 241
11.6 Into the 1980s 245
References 246
12 The Mark I* at the Atomic Weapons Research Establishment, Aldermaston 247
12.1 Preparing for the UK’s Nuclear Deterrent 247
12.2 Aldermaston Acquires a Mark I* 248
12.3 The End of the Mark I* at Aldermaston 252
12.4 What Came Next? the Supercomputer Race 252
12.5 Software Activity at AWRE 254
References 257
13 What Came Next? 258
13.1 The New Life at Dover Street 258
13.2 The Computer Becomes User-Friendly 262
13.3 Goodbye Mark I, Goodbye FC 266
13.4 Ferranti and Supercomputers 270
13.5 From Ferranti via ICT and ICL to Oblivion 274
13.6 Any Star Dust Left Today? 276
References 279
14 Appendix A. Baby’s Conception: The Back Story 280
14.1 Computer History: The Wider Context 280
14.2 Max Newman’s Plans for a Computing Machine Laboratory 283
14.3 Willis Jackson and Max Newman’s BP Hardware 291
14.4 Alan Turing and the ACE Connection 294
14.5 Albert Uttley and the TRE Connection 296
14.6 Jack Good and the Princeton Connection 297
14.7 Conclusions on Conceptions 303
References 305
15 Appendix B. Mark I and Mark I* Software Details 306
15.1 Notations and the 5-Bit Teleprinter Code 306
15.2 Instruction Format and Programmer-Accessible Registers 308
15.3 Further Explanation of the Mark I Instruction Set 314
15.4 Storage Organisation: Primary and Secondary Memory 317
15.5 Basic System Software 319
15.6 Alan Turing’s Formal Mode: An Embryonic Operating System? 322
15.7 The Mark I Operator’s Console 323
15.8 Instruction Speeds for the Ferranti Mark I 325
15.9 Automatic Coding and Autocodes 325
15.10 Instruction-Set Differences Between the Ferranti Mark I and Mark I* 326
15.11 Number Representation and the Instruction Set for the Ferranti Mark I* 327
15.12 The Input Routine for the Ferranti Mark I* 332
15.13 Other Systems Software for the Ferranti Mark I* 333
References 337
16 Appendix C. Mark I and Mark I* Hardware Details 338
16.1 Physical Layout of Sub-units in the Ferranti Mark I 338
16.2 Register-Level Architecture 341
16.3 Circuit Technology 342
16.4 Storage Technology 343
16.5 Input/Output Equipment 347
16.6 Power Supplies 348
16.7 Reliability 349
16.8 Later Hardware Modifications 350
References 351
17 Appendix D. Naming Names 352
17.1 Ferranti Engineers Working on the Mark I and Mark I* 353
17.2 Ferranti Programmers 359
17.3 Comparison with Other UK Industrial Programming Groups 365
17.4 Relevant Manchester University Staff 368
17.4.1 The Early Days of Ferranti Collaboration 368
17.4.2 Later Collaborations with Ferranti Ltd 371
References 373
18 Appendix E. Performance, Cost and Delivery Details of Other Computers 374
18.1 Analysis of UK Computer Deliveries, 1955–1957 374
18.2 American and British High Performance Computers, 1954–1964 374
Picture Credits 379
References 383
Name Index 388
Subject Index 392