Psychology of Learning and Motivation (eBook)

The Psychology of Learning and Motivation 2
Series Editor 3
The Psychology of Learning and Motivation 4
Copyright 5
Contents 6
CONTRIBUTORS 10
One - The Many Facets of Individual Differences in Working Memory Capacity 12
1. INTRODUCTION 13
2. IMPORTANCE OF WORKING MEMORY 13
3. A THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK FOR WORKING MEMORY CAPACITY 16
4. MULTIPLE FACETS INFLUENCE INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN WORKING MEMORY CAPACITY 18
4.1 Capacity of Primary Memory 18
4.2 Attention Control 27
4.3 Secondary Memory 36
5. MEASUREMENT OF WORKING MEMORY CAPACITY 43
6. HETEROGENEITY OF WORKING MEMORY CAPACITY LIMITATIONS 47
7. CONCLUSIONS 48
REFERENCES 48
Two - An Exemplar-Retrieval Model of Short-term Memory Search: Linking Categorization and Probe Recognition 58
1. INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND 59
1.1 Introduction 59
1.2 Background 60
2. THE “CORE” VERSION OF THE FORMAL MODEL 61
3. SHORT-TERM PROBE RECOGNITION IN A CONTINUOUS-DIMENSION SIMILARITY SPACE 65
4. SHORT-TERM PROBE RECOGNITION OF DISCRETE STIMULI 69
5. A POWER LAW OF MEMORY STRENGTH 73
6. BRIDGING SHORT-TERM AND LONG-TERM PROBE RECOGNITION AND INCORPORATING THE ROLE OF PREVIOUS MEMORY SETS 75
6.1 Review of Empirical Findings 75
6.2 The Extended EBRW Model: Conceptual Description 78
6.3 The Extended EBRW Model: Formal Description 82
6.4 Modeling Application 85
7. EVIDENCE FOR A JOINT ROLE OF CATEGORIZATION AND FAMILIARITY PROCESSES 87
8. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 91
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 93
REFERENCES 93
Three - Hybrid Causal Representations 96
1. INTRODUCTION 97
2. FRAMEWORKS OF CAUSAL REASONING 98
2.1 The Dependency Framework 99
2.2 The Disposition Framework 101
2.3 The Process Framework 105
3. HYBRID CAUSAL REPRESENTATIONS 106
3.1 Unitary Versus Pluralistic Causal Theories 107
3.2 Hybrid Accounts 108
4. CASE STUDIES 110
4.1 Study 1: The Interaction of Dispositional Intuitions and Dependency Representations—Markov Violations as a Test Case 110
4.1.1 Agents and Causes 111
4.1.2 Agency, Accountability, and Error Attribution 114
4.1.3 A Bayes Net Account of Error Attribution 115
4.1.4 Markov Violations as a Test Case 116
4.1.5 Alternative Theories 119
4.2 Study 2: Mutual Constraints Between Dispositional Intuitions and Dependency Knowledge 121
4.2.1 Probabilistic Force Model 121
4.2.2 Experiment 123
4.3 Study 3: Dependencies, Processes, and Dispositions: The Michotte Task 125
5. CONCLUSION 133
ACKNOWLEDGMENT 134
REFERENCES 134
Four - Increased Wisdom From the Ashes of Ignorance and Surprise: Numerically-Driven Inferencing, Global Warming, a ... 140
1. LEARNING, WISDOM, AND IGNORANCE 141
2. GAUGING ONE'S NUMERICAL KNOWLEDGE/IGNORANCE BOUNDARIES 145
3. GAUGING ONE'S MECHANISTIC KNOWLEDGE/IGNORANCE BOUNDARIES 148
4. (ESPECIALLY SURPRISING) NUMERICAL AND MECHANISTIC INFORMATION CAN CHANGE MINDS 151
5. EXPLANATORY COHERENCE AND NUMERICALLY DRIVEN INFERENCING 153
6. NUMERICAL AND MECHANISTIC CO-INFLUENCES: GRAPHS AND STATISTICS IMPLYING CAUSALITY 160
7. USING NDI CURRICULA TO IMPROVE PEOPLE'S ANALYTIC ABILITIES 164
7.1 Improving Precollege Students' Numeric-Analytic Abilities 164
7.2 Improving Journalists' Numeric-Analytic Abilities 166
8. LONG-TERM CONCEPTUAL CHANGE AS A HOLY GRAIL 168
9. DIRECT TO THE PUBLIC: CONCEPTUAL CHANGE ABOUT GLOBAL WARMING (GW) 172
10. FIVE WAYS TO INCREASE GW ACCEPTANCE NUMERICALLY AND/OR MECHANISTICALLY 174
11. A RISING TIDE OF GERMANE, NONDECEITFUL, INFORMATION “LIFTS ALL WISDOMS” 179
11.1 Future Directions With GW as a Touchstone 180
11.2 Conclusions 182
ACKNOWLEDGMENT 183
APPENDICES 184
Appendix A: Sources for Table 1, “Michael Ranney's Picks for the Top 40 Numbers One Should Know (But Many Don't)” (Based on ... 184
Appendix B: Michael Ranney's Picks, With Sources, for the “Top 40 Numbers One Should Know (But Many Don't)a,” Updated With ... 185
Appendix C: 400-Word Text Explaining the Mechanism of Global Warming (From Ranney, Clark, Reinholz, & Cohen, 2012b)
REFERENCES 189
Five - How Retrieval Attempts Affect Learning: A Review and Synthesis 194
1. INTRODUCTION 195
2. THREE KINDS OF EVIDENCE 197
2.1 Retrieval Difficulty 197
2.2 Item Difficulty 198
2.3 Experimental Control of Retrieval Success 199
3. WHY RETRIEVAL SUCCESS MIGHT MATTER 199
4. EVIDENCE THAT UNSUCCESSFUL RETRIEVAL IMPROVES MEMORY 200
4.1 Test-Potentiated Learning 200
4.2 Pretesting Procedures 202
5. THE TWO-STAGE FRAMEWORK 203
6. MODERATORS OF THE PRETESTING EFFECT 205
6.1 Feedback Timing 205
6.2 Trivia Questions 206
6.3 Scholastic Materials 207
6.4 Older Adults 208
6.5 Metacognitive Awareness 210
7. DOES RETRIEVAL SUCCESS EVEN MATTER? 210
7.1 What About Target Memory? 212
7.2 Fragments as Feedback 213
8. THEORIES OF TEST-ENHANCED LEARNING 214
8.1 New Theory of Disuse 214
8.2 Retrieval Effort Hypothesis 217
8.3 Elaborative Retrieval Hypothesis 218
8.4 Search Set Theory 219
8.5 Episodic Context Account 220
9. CONCLUSION 221
9.1 Theoretical Implications 221
9.2 Practical Implications 222
REFERENCES 223
Six - Prediction, Information Structure, and Good-Enough Language Processing 228
1. INTRODUCTION 229
2. THE GOOD-ENOUGH LANGUAGE PROCESSING APPROACH 230
2.1 Good-Enough Reanalysis 231
2.2 Good-Enough Processing in a Broader Context 233
3. PREDICTION IN COMPREHENSION 234
3.1 Prediction of Syntactic Structure 235
3.2 Prediction of Specific Words 235
3.2.1 Prediction in Cloze Contexts 236
3.2.2 Prediction as Surprisal and Entropy 237
3.2.3 Prediction and the Visual World Paradigm 238
3.3 Prediction and Top-Down Processing 241
3.4 Summary 243
4. INFORMATION STRUCTURE: GIVEN BEFORE NEW 243
5. PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER: INFORMATION STRUCTURE, GOOD-ENOUGH PROCESSING, AND PREDICTION 246
6. CONCLUSIONS 251
REFERENCES 252
Seven - Separating the Activation, Integration, and Validation Components of Reading 260
1. INTRODUCTION 260
2. THE RI-VAL MODEL OF COMPREHENSION 263
2.1 General World Knowledge Versus Contextual Influences on Comprehension 267
2.2 Mediating Influences on Validation 270
2.3 When Validation “Fails” 274
2.4 Manipulating the Coherence Threshold 279
3. IMPLICATIONS OF THE RI-VAL MODEL 281
4. CONCLUSIONS 282
REFERENCES 283
Eight - The Politics of Attention: Differences in Visual Cognition Between Liberals and Conservatives 288
1. INTRODUCTION 289
2. BACKGROUND 289
3. HOW DOES ENHANCED PHYSIOLOGICAL REACTIVITY MANIFEST IN TERMS OF BASIC COGNITIVE BEHAVIORS? 291
4. LOOK INTO MY EYES AND TELL ME WHAT YOU SEE 296
5. EMOTION PROCESSING 304
5.1 Flanker Task 305
5.2 Visual Search: Resolving Discrepancies and Investigating Mechanisms 307
6. POLITICAL TEMPERAMENT DOES NOT INTERACT WITH EVERYTHING 313
7. SUMMARY AND TAKEAWAY 314
REFERENCES 315
INDEX 322
A 322
B 322
C 322
D 323
E 324
F 325
G 325
H 325
I 325
J 326
L 326
M 326
N 326
O 327
P 327
R 328
S 329
T 329
U 329
V 330
W 330
CONTENTS OF PREVIOUS VOLUMES 332
VOLUME 40 332
VOLUME 41 332
VOLUME 42 332
VOLUME 43 333
VOLUME 44 333
VOLUME 45 333
VOLUME 46 334
VOLUME 47 334
VOLUME 48 334
VOLUME 49 335
VOLUME 50 335
VOLUME 51 335
VOLUME 52 336
VOLUME 53 336
VOLUME 54 336
VOLUME 55 337
VOLUME 56 337
VOLUME 57 338
VOLUME 58 338
VOLUME 59 338
VOLUME 60 338
VOLUME 61 339
VOLUME 62 339
VOLUME 63 340
VOLUME 64 340