Typical and Atypical Development

Martin Herbert is Honorary Consultant Clinical Psychologist at the Royal and Devon Exeter Health Care Trust and Emeritus Professor of Clinical Psychology at the University of Exeter.

Preface xii

Introduction 1

From childhood to adolescence 1

Parenthood 1

Concepts of normality and abnormality 2

Age- and stage-related tasks 11

Crises of development 12

The developmental history 13

Part I: Typical Development Where the Journey Begins the Intrauterine Stages and Perinatal Period

Introduction 17

Chapter 1 The First Steps 19

Conception: the beginning of life 19

Genetic variation and influence 22

The genotype 26

The human genome project 26

Similarities and differences in individuals and groups 28

Progress from conception to birth 30

Summary of prenatal events: times after conception 39

Unanswered questions 42

Chapter 2 The Perinatal Period 44

Anticipation of the birth 44

Fads and fashions 45

The birth: labour and delivery 47

The mother and postnatal infant care 51

Maternal bonding theory 54

Bonding to the unborn baby 56

The competent infant 57

Parenting 58

Siblings 59

Environmental influences 60

Representational models of the infant 62

Part II: Typical Development Infancy

Introduction 63

The first relationship 63

The development of sociability 65

Crying and smiling as ‘social communication’ 65

The nature of attachment 67

Internal representations and selfhood 71

Development of self–other awareness 72

Chapter 3 Early Childhood: The Pre-School Stage Infant Growth and Development 75

Physical development 75

The nervous system 78

The brain growth spurt 78

The brain and communication 80

Growth of the brain 81

Biological basis of personality 83

Sleeping patterns 85

Feeding behaviour 89

Chapter 4 Perceptual, Motor and Language Development 90

Perceptual development 90

Vision and fine motor movement 91

Motor development 94

The proactive brain 99

Speech and language development 100

Part III: Typical Development Adaptation and Learning

Introduction 107

Adjustment and adaptation 107

Cultural influences 109

The family environment 110

Childcare practices 110

Maternal privation and deprivation 111

The father’s role 113

Divorce 116

Adoption 119

Surrogate parenting 120

Learning theory 120

Models of learning 122

The adaptive role of fear 127

Generalized anxiety 129

Chapter 5 Early Childhood: The Pre-School Stage Socialization and Cognitive Development 131

Socialization and self-control 131

Learning and identification: social and moral awareness 132

Social cognition 134

Social compliance 135

The development of aggressive behaviour 137

Sex-role (gender) identity 139

Socializing tasks 141

Cognitive development 145

Play 151

Theory of mind 153

Chapter 6 Middle and Late Childhood the School-Going Child 156

Developing a new individuality 156

Rules and values 158

Expectations of parents 159

Social skills and friendships 160

Exchange theory 162

Siblings: the longest lasting relationships 163

Chapter 7 Adolescence: Leaving Childhood Behind 164

The changes of puberty 164

The end of childhood 166

Adolescent sexuality 171

Identity and self-image 173

The ending of puberty 176

Part IV: Atypical Development the Hazardous Route

Introduction 177

Issues of assessment, definition and measurement 177

The journey begins again: prenatal influences 178

Genetic influences: inherited abnormalities 179

Chromosomal abnormalities 180

Genetic accidents 183

Patterns of genetic transmission 184

Prenatal, antenatal and neonatal screening 187

Behavioural genetics 187

Neuropsychological causation 188

Chapter 8 The Perilous First Journey the Inhospitable Environment 189

Maternal stress and inherited abnormalities 189

Biological adversity 190

Teratogens 191

Chapter 9 The Hazardous Perinatal Period the Atypical Route 195

The Apgar test 195

Survival repertoire 197

Birth complications 198

Prematurity 199

Birth trauma 205

Anoxia 206

Parental attachment to atypical infants 208

Stillbirth and infant death 211

Chapter 10 Early Childhood Atypical Physical, Sensory and Motor Development 213

Physical disorders and disabilities 213

Congenital physical anomalies 218

Abnormalities of haemoglobin 219

Impairments of vision 219

Impairments of hearing 221

Motor impairments 222

Impairments of speech and language 225

Executive functions of the brain 229

Neurological damage 230

Tics and Tourette’s syndrome 232

Head injuries 233

Chapter 11 The Pre-School Child Atypical Behaviour 236

The authoritative parent 236

Socialization 237

Assertive/commanding behaviour in young children 239

Adverse temperamental attributes 239

The ‘difficult’ child 241

Oppositional defiant disorder 242

Developmental (physical) task problems 244

Chapter 12 The School-Going Child Atypical Behaviour 252

Educational failure 252

Insecurity based problems 253

Reactive attachment disorder 254

Peer group problems 255

Rejection 256

Social skills problems 256

Selective mutism 257

School refusal 257

Attention deficit and hyperactivity at school 260

Severe (profound) learning disabilities 263

Specific learning disabilities 263

Dyslexia 265

Part V: Atypical Development Mental Health and Mental Illness

Introduction 269

Positive mental health 269

Mental illness 270

Chapter 13 Adolescence: Unsocial and Antisocial Behaviour 275

Prejudice 275

Risky sexual activity 278

Drug use and abuse 280

Antisocial behaviour: conduct disorders 281

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder 284

Bullying 291

Delinquency 291

Personality disorder 293

Moral development 294

Chapter 14 Psychological and Psychiatric Disorders 296

Mental health problems 296

Anxiety states 299

Phobic anxiety 301

Panic attacks 305

Agoraphobia 306

Obsessive–compulsive disorder 308

Depression (affective disorder) 309

Schizophrenia 315

Part VI: Atypical Development Children with Special Needs

Introduction 321

Defining need 321

Developmental disability 321

The child who is ill 323

Child protection 324

Chapter 15 Pervasive Developmental Difficulties

Early to Late Childhood and Adolescence 325

Intellectual (learning) disability 325

Classification of intellectual impairment 328

Pervasive developmental disorders 333

The autistic continuum 333

Asperger syndrome/disorder 347

Anorexia nervosa 348

Chapter 16 When a Child is Ill 357

Chronic illness 357

Implications of acute and chronic illness 361

Serious illness (hospitalization) 363

Development of the concept of death 363

Ethical issues 368

Chapter 17 Child Abuse and Maltreatment 371

Physical abuse 372

Emotional abuse 373

Child sexual abuse 373

Epilogue 381

Appendix I: False and True Beliefs 383

Appendix II: Measurement of Intelligence 385

References and Bibliography 388

Index 411