Handbook of Social Psychology (eBook)

John DeLamater brings a broad, biopsychosocial perspective to the study of sexuality through the life course. His recent work has focused on changes in sexual functioning associated with age. He has published papers on sexual desire and sexual behavior in persons aged 45 to 75+ and a paper on sexual satisfaction using data from the Wisconsin Longitudinal Study (ages 62-67). His recent work considers influences on frequency of sexual activity and cessation of sexual activity among persons 57 to 85. A major review and synthesis of research on sexuality in later life appears in the Annual Review of Sex Research, 2012. He co-edited Sex for Life: From virginity to Viagra, how sexuality changes throughout our lives, NYU press. DeLamater was awarded the Alfred E. Kinsey Award for Distinguished Contributions to the field of sex research by the Society for the Scientific Study of Sexuality. He is the co-author of a primary text in social psychology and another on sexuality.

Preface (Reprinted From First Edition) 6
The Vision 6
The Goals 7
The Field of Social Psychology 7
Contents 10
Introduction 12
Part I: Theoretical Perspectives 14
Chapter 1: Interactionist Perspectives in Social Psychology 15
Introduction 1 15
Core Themes of Symbolic Interactionism 15
Exhi bit 1.1 Core Themes of Symbolic Interaction 16
Original Themes 16
Elaborations of Symbolic Interactionism 18
European Influences 18
Neo-Kantian Relativism 18
Evolutionism 19
Early American Philosophy 19
Cambridge-Style Pragmatism 19
Chicago-Style Pragmatism 20
Early American Psychology 20
Early American Sociology 21
University of Michigan 21
University of Chicago 22
Classical Symbolic Interactionism 23
University of Chicago 23
Neo-Chicago 24
Beyond Chicago 24
Common Developments 24
Common Themes 26
Some Key Concepts of Symbolic Interactionism 13 26
Some Traditions Within Symbolic Interactionism 14 28
Process Tradition of Symbolic Interactionism 28
Structural Tradition of Symbolic Interactionism 29
Dramaturgical Tradition of Symbolic Interactionism 31
Postmodern Tradition of Symbolic Interactionism 32
Recent Developments in Symbolic Interactionism 15 33
Developments 33
Current Themes of Symbolic Interaction 34
Future Directions 35
References 36
Chapter 2: Identity Theory 42
Introduction 42
Symbolic Interactionism 43
Structural Symbolic Interactionism 44
Key Concepts in Identity Theory 45
An Identity 45
Verification 46
Salience 47
Commitment 47
Centrality/Prominence 48
Resources 48
Bases of Identities 49
Methods 50
Survey Research 50
Laboratory Research 51
Measurement 52
An Identity 52
Verification 52
Salience 53
Commitment 53
Centrality/Prominence 53
Resources 53
Multiple Identities 54
Internal Perspective 54
Control Hierarchy 54
Salience Hierarchy 54
External Perspective 55
Roles 55
Groups 56
Identities and Emotion 56
Identity Change 58
Bridging to Other Sociological Areas 60
Sociology of Crime and Law 60
Violence Research 60
Law 61
Sociology of Education 61
Sociology of Race/Ethnicity 62
Future Directions 62
Substantive Areas of Investigation 63
Situational Factors 63
Identity Formation and Change 63
Negative/Stigmatized Identities 63
Social Movement Activity 64
Bridging to Other Theories 65
Affect Control Theory 65
Expectation States Theory 65
Exchange Theory 66
Social Identity Theory 66
Conclusion 67
References 68
Chapter 3: Social Exchange Theory 72
Introduction 72
Social Behavior as Exchange 73
The Structure of Social Exchange 75
Exchange Relations, Networks and Power 75
Exchange, Power and Status 78
Exchange, Fairness, and Commitment 79
Fairness 79
Commitment 80
Emotion and Exchange 83
Relational Cohesion, Solidarity, and Micro Social Order 83
A Theory of Reciprocity in Exchange Relations 85
Collective Action and Social Exchange 86
Methodology and Social Exchange 89
Future Directions: Linkages to Economic Sociology and the Study of Networks 92
References 95
Chapter 4: Social Structure and Personality 100
Introduction 100
The Three Faces of Social Psychology Revisited 101
The Basic Elements of Social Structure and Personality 101
The Three Principles of SSP 105
Classic Examples of Social Structure and Personality 106
Modernization and the Individual 106
Occupational Conditions and Psychological Functioning 109
Contemporary Research in the SSP Tradition 110
Culture and Psyche: Cross-National Differences in Personality 111
Social Class Differences in Personality 113
The Structural Origins of Culture: Culture, Complexity, and the Proximity Principle 115
Challenges of a Cultural Explanation for Behavior 117
Methodological Requirements of SSP 120
Conclusion 121
References 121
Part II: Development and Socialization 127
Chapter 5: Socialization in Childhood and Adolescence 128
Introduction 128
Socialization Theory 129
Theorizing Childhood and Adolescence 129
How Socialization Occurs 129
Socialization Over the Life Course 130
Stage Theories 130
Socio-Historical Time 132
Children 132
Adolescence 133
Methods of Inquiry for Studying Young People 134
Experiments 134
Survey Methods 135
Ethnographic and Observation Research 136
Interviewing 136
Mixed Methods Research 137
Contexts of Socialization 137
Families 137
Friendships, Peer Groups, Subcultures, and Social Networks 138
Schools, Schooling, and Work 139
Communities and Neighborhoods 139
Social and Cultural Forces 140
Cultural Variation 140
Mass and Social Media 141
The Influence of Socialization on Later Life Experiences 141
Adolescent Identity 141
Identity Development Among Marginalized Youth 142
Behavioral Outcomes 144
Romantic Relationships and Onset of Sexual Behavior 144
Delinquent Behavior 144
Education and Career Outcomes 145
Class and Racial-Ethnic Differences 145
Developing and Aligning Ambitions 146
Gendered Differences 147
New Research Directions 147
References 149
Chapter 6: Socialization for Primary, Intimate, and Work Relationships in the Adult Life Course 159
Introduction 159
Conceptual and Methodological Approaches 160
Socialization for Adult Primary Relationships and Intimacy 162
Defining Key Terms 162
Developing Gender and Sexual Identities 163
Gender and Sexual Norms 163
Gender Socialization 164
Theories of Gender Identity Development 165
Psychoanalytic Theories 165
Social Learning Theories 165
Cognitive Development Theories 166
Adolescence 167
Puberty 167
Sexuality Education 168
Deviation from Gender and Sexual Norms 169
Developing a Gay or Lesbian Identity 170
Development of Intimate Relationships 171
The Influence of Relationships in Early Childhood 171
Relationships in Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood 171
The Influence of Media 172
Dating and Sexuality 172
Socialization in More Stable Relationship Contexts 174
Heterosexual Marriage and Cohabitation 175
Same Sex Marriage and Cohabitation 175
Socialization to Parenthood 176
Socialization in Contexts of Relationship Dissolution 177
Divorce 177
Death of a Spouse 177
Nonmarital Relationship Dissolution 178
The Role of Technology in Relationship Dissolution 178
Socialization for Work 178
Historical Context 178
Socialization to Work in the Family of Origin 179
Socialization in the Teen Workplace 180
Delayed Vocational Development and the Erosion of Socialization for Work 181
Socialization for Work in Post-­secondary Educational Settings 182
Socialization for Work in the Early Occupational Career 183
Socialization for Balancing Work and Family 184
Discussion and Conclusion 185
References 188
Part III: Personal Processes 196
Chapter 7: Social Psychology and the Body 197
Introduction 197
Key Concepts 199
Early Theoretical Approaches 201
Classical Sociology 201
Pragmatism and Early Social Psychology 201
Evolutionary Theories, Sociobiology, and Social Psychology 202
Revival of Sociological Theories and Empirical Inquiry 203
Theorizing the Body in Contemporary Social Psychology 204
Evolutionary Social Psychology 205
Symbolic Interactionism 206
Expectation States Theory, Stigma and Embodied Difference 208
Notable Research 209
Culture, Socialization, and the Body 209
Self Evaluation 210
Cultural Schema and Scripting 211
Body Work 211
Emotion and Emotional Labor 212
Sexuality and Gender 213
Gender as Socially Constructed 213
Gendered Sexuality 215
Health, Ability and Aging 216
Stigma, Identity Work, and Social Interaction 216
Interaction and Social Support 218
Cultural Differences in Health and Illness 218
Methodological Trends 219
The State of the Field and Future Directions 220
References 222
Chapter 8: Self and Self-Concept 231
Self and Self-Concept: Philosophical Foundations 231
Self and Self-Concept: Some Distinctions and Definitions 232
Self and Self-Concept: Theory and Research 234
Self-Concept as Social Product and Social Force 235
The Self as a Social Force 236
The Self as a Social Product 237
The Self as a Social Force and Product 238
Self-Presentation Theory: Explicitly Linking Self-Concept as a Social Product and a Social Force 240
Some New and Under-Researched Concepts Important to the Self 243
Mattering 243
Comfort with the Self 245
Methods in Researching Self and Self-Concept 247
Survey Research 247
Longitudinal Surveys 247
Cross-Sectional Surveys 248
Field Research 249
Laboratory Research 249
Conclusion 249
References 250
Chapter 9: Language Use and Social Interaction 256
Language in Social Psychology 257
Language Use and Action 258
Speech Act Theory 258
Language Use as a Form of Life 259
The “Mapping” Problem 260
Sociolinguistics and Discourse Analysis 261
Sociolinguistics 261
Methodology in Sociolinguistics 262
Discourse Analysis 262
Goffman and Frame Analysis 264
Discursive Psychology 266
Accounts of Courses of Action 266
Accounts of Mental and Emotional States 266
Accounts of Identity 267
Methodology in Discursive Psychology 267
Ethnomethodology and Conversation Analysis 268
The Transition to Conversation Analysis 268
Organization of Sequences: Adjacency Pairs 269
Other Kinds of Sequence Organization 270
Turn-Taking 270
Repair Sequences 270
Overall Structural Organization 271
Conversational Epistemics 271
Methodology in Conversation Analysis 272
Language Use, Action, and Social Structure 272
Macrodirectional Approach: Social Categories and Language Use 273
Social Class 273
Gender 273
Talk and Social Structure: Dialectics and Reflexivity 274
Dialectics 274
Reflexivity 275
Race and Gender as Categories-in-Interaction 276
Conclusion 277
References 278
Chapter 10: Motivation, Motives, and Individual Agency 285
Introduction 285
Non-sociological Theories of Motivation 287
Evolutionary Approaches to Motivation 287
Economic/Rational Actor Approaches to Motivation 287
Psychological Approaches to Motivation 288
Sociological Theories of Motivation 290
Mills’ Vocabularies of Motive 291
Reactions to Mills’ Vocabulary of Motives and Expansions of Mills’ Framework 292
Research Utilizing Mills’ Vocabulary of Motives 296
Vocabularies of Motive in Deviance 297
Vocabularies of Motive in Relationships 300
Vocabularies of Motive in Social Movements and Social Institutions 301
Conclusions About Vocabulary of Motives Applications 302
Understanding Social Motivation 303
Defining Social Motivation 303
The Role of Individual Agency and Resistance in Social Motivation 304
A Review of Specific Motives and Their Effects on Behavior 305
Understanding Motive to Understand Motivation 305
Specific Motivations and Motives 307
Altruism 307
Trust 308
Methodological Issues 309
Individual Agency 310
Understanding Agency 310
Awareness and Performance of Self 311
The Search for Authenticity 311
The Social Construction of Reality 312
Individuals as Agents of Change 312
The Interplay Between Social Structure and Individual Agency 313
Conclusion/Discussion 314
The Influence of Structure on Agency and the Influence of Agency on Structure 314
Directions for Future Theoretical and Empirical Work 314
References 316
Chapter 11: Values, Attitudes, and Ideologies: Explicit and Implicit Constructs Shaping Perception and Action 323
Introduction: A Sociological Map 323
Definitions 324
Core Issues: Influences, Measurement and Application 325
Values 325
Attitudes 328
Ideologies 334
Conclusion 336
References 336
Chapter 12: Emotions 344
Why Study Emotions? 344
Definitions: Emotions, Sentiments, Moods, and Feelings 345
Typologizing Emotions 346
Methods and Measures in the Study of Emotions 348
Biology, Culture, and Emotional Experience 350
Theoretical Approaches to Emotions 350
Classical Sociological Theory and Emotions 351
Social Structural Approaches to Emotions 351
Emotion Management and Emotional Labor 353
Identity Theory and Emotions 356
Varieties of Interactional Theory and Emotions 358
Phenomenological Approaches to Emotions 360
Social Exchange and Emotions 361
Evolutionary Social Psychological Theories of Emotions 362
Recent Theoretical Developments 364
Emotions as Performance 364
Theorizing the Effects of Physical Spaces on Emotional Experiences 365
Conclusion: Directions for Future Research 366
References 366
Part IV: Interpersonal Processes 371
Chapter 13: Intimate Relationships 372
Methods 372
The Centrality of Romantic Ties 373
Attachment Theory 374
Basic Relationship Processes: Initial Attraction 375
Relationship Satisfaction 377
Relationship Stability 379
Social Cognition 380
Relationships and Health 382
Jealousy and Infidelity 384
Infidelity 385
Intimate Partner Violence 387
Breakups and Divorce 388
Alternative Relationships: Nonmarital Cohabitation 391
Same-Sex Couples 394
Lack of Opportunities for Legal Formalization 396
Magnification of Gender-Related Emotional Dynamics 398
Directions for Future Research: Greater Integration of Relationship Research and Sexuality Research 398
Conclusion 400
References 400
Chapter 14: Interaction in Small Groups 413
Introduction 413
Methodological Approaches 414
Power, Status, and Leadership 415
Role Differentiation 415
Status Structures 416
Leadership 417
Gender and Leadership 418
Current Directions in Leadership 419
Processes of Inclusion and Exclusion in Groups 420
Inclusion Processes in Groups 420
Impact of Cohesion 421
Social Identity Theory 422
Processes of Exclusion in Groups 423
Schisms in Groups 425
Minority-Majority Influence 425
Motivation and Coordination 427
Process Losses and Gains 427
Transactive Memory 428
Information Exchange 429
Group Decision Making 429
Group Polarization 430
Conclusions 431
References 432
Chapter 15: Interaction in Social Networks 439
Introduction 439
A Social Network Perspective 440
Conceptual and Methodological Issues 441
Network Concepts 441
Density 441
Degree 443
Centrality 444
Tie Strength 444
Cliques 444
Transitivity 445
Equivalence 445
Social Network Types 445
Social Network Data Collection 446
Network Characteristics 446
Formation of Networks 446
Network Theory 447
Weak Ties 447
Balance, Transitivity, and Triadic Closure 448
Social Influence and Power 449
Network Effects Model 449
Structural Hole Theory 449
Influence and Selection 449
Social Exchange 450
Applications of Social Network Theories 451
Friendship and Acquaintances 451
Network Size and Composition 451
The Small World 451
Friendship Ties 452
Adolescent Sexual and Delinquent Behavior 452
Health 453
Aggression and Negative Tie Networks 454
Summary of Friendship, Health, Aggression, and Networks 454
Dyadic Relationships 455
Opportunities, Information, and Support 455
Relationship Stability 456
The “Romeo and Juliet Effect” 456
Post Breakup or Divorce 456
Summary of Dyadic Relationships and Networks 457
Internet Networks 457
Future Directions 457
Conclusions 459
References 460
Chapter 16: The Social Psychology of Stress, Health, and Coping 465
Introduction 465
Core Concepts 466
Stress and Stressors 466
Stress Outcomes 467
Coping Resources and Strategies 468
Theoretical Perspectives 469
Role Theory 470
Fundamental Cause Theory 470
Cumulative Disadvantage Theories 471
Life Course Frameworks 471
The Stress Process Model 472
Research Methodologies 472
Quantitative Research Approaches 473
Data Sources 473
Help-Seeking Samples 473
Cross-Sectional Studies 473
Longitudinal Studies 473
Sample Surveys 474
Analytic Approaches 474
Measurement Issues 474
Stress and Stressors 474
Stressful Life Events 474
Chronic Strains 475
Daily Hassles 475
Stress Outcomes 475
Mental Health 476
Physical Health 477
Health Behaviors 477
Coping Resources 478
Qualitative Research Approaches 479
Blended-Method Approaches 479
Future Directions 480
Heterogeneity and Minority Stress 480
Moving Beyond the Individual 480
Reconciling Multiple Outcomes and Methods 481
Gene-Environment Influences 481
References 482
Part V: The Person in Sociocultural Context 488
Chapter 17: Social Psychology of Gender and Race 489
Defining Concepts 490
Defining Gender 491
Sex 491
Gender 491
Sexuality 492
Defining Race and Ethnicity 493
Politicization of Social Categories: Sexism, Racism, Ethnocentrism 494
Intersections of Gender and Race 494
Conceptions of Gender and Race in Social Psychology 496
Essentialism 496
Socialization 497
Social Constructionist Approaches 498
Structural Approaches 501
Social Psychological Theories 501
Social Exchange Theory 502
Justice and the Distribution of Resources 502
Social Exchange in Intimate Relationships 503
Status and Power 504
Social Cognition 506
Cognitive Structures 506
Cognitive Processes 509
Attention 509
Memory 510
Inferences 510
Symbolic Interaction 511
Gender and Racial Identities 511
Behavioral Confirmation 513
Resisting Social Expectations 514
Methodologies 515
Current Trends and Future Directions 517
References 520
Chapter 18: Intergroup Relations 530
Defining Intergroup Relations 530
Research Methods 531
Personality Dispositions and Individual Differences 533
Authoritarianism, Dogmatism, and Closed-Mindedness 533
Social Dominance and System Justification 534
Goal Relations and Interdependence 534
Realistic Conflict 535
Frustrated Ambitions 535
Social Categorization 536
Minimal Groups 536
Automatic Schema Activation 537
Accentuation and Illusory Correlation 537
Self and Social Identity 538
Social Identity Theory 538
Social Identity Processes and Phenomena 539
Motives and Motivation 539
Personality- and Affiliation-Related Motivations 540
Social Identity-Related Motivations 540
Affect and Emotion 541
Intergroup Attitudes 542
Stereotyping and Prejudice 542
Social Explanation 543
Prejudice and Discrimination 543
Attitudes and Behavior 543
Overt Discrimination 544
Stigma and Disadvantage 545
Deviants and Marginal Members 545
Collective Action and Social Protest 546
Crowds and Riots 546
Collective Action and Social Change 547
Social Protest and Active Minorities 547
Social Harmony Between Groups 548
Intergroup Contact 548
Categorization 549
Diversity 550
Leadership 550
Concluding Comments 550
References 551
Chapter 19: Social Psychological Perspectives on Deviance 559
The Nature of Deviance 560
Defining Deviance 562
Motivation to Deviate 565
Motivation to Deviate from Conventional Norms 566
Motivation to Conform to Deviant Norms 569
Acting on Deviant Motives 572
Counteracting Motives 572
Opportunities 575
(Dis)Continuation of Deviant Behavior 576
Positive Reinforcement of Deviant Behavior 578
Deviant Acts and Need Satisfaction 578
Delinquent Acts and Self-Justification 579
Weakening of Social Controls 579
Limited Adverse Consequences 579
Decreased Attraction to Conventional Values 580
Opportunities for Deviance 580
Consequences of Deviance 581
Formal and Informal Social Responses 581
Consequences for Deterrence 582
Affirming Moral Standards and Group Solidarity 582
Social Functioning 583
Social Change 583
Social Psychology of Deviance: Perspectives on the Future 584
References 587
Chapter 20: Cultural Perspectives 591
What Is Culture? 591
Themes That Characterize Cultural Patterns 592
Methods 593
Sample 593
Translation 594
Measures 595
Cultural Differences in Psychological Processes 595
Self-Concepts and Knowledge 596
Self-Representations 596
Self-Consistency 597
Motivation 598
Cognitive Dissonance 598
Adjusting Versus Influencing 598
Intrinsic Motivation 599
Self-Improvement Versus Self-Enhancement 599
Emotion 600
Relationship-Based Versus Individual-Based Models of Emotions 600
Dialectical Versus Hedonic Cultural Scripts About Positive and Negative Emotions 600
Ideal Affect and Low and High Arousal Emotions 601
Cognition 602
Attention and Perception 602
Categorization 602
Attribution 603
Communication 603
Size of Cultural Differences 604
Multi-level Processes Underlying Cultural Differences 604
Individual Factors 605
Manipulating Core Values and Ideas 605
Mediation by Core Values and Ideas 606
Mediation by Intersubjective Beliefs 607
Distal-Level Situational Factors 607
Ecological Threats 607
Economic Activities 608
Affluence and Social Class 608
Voluntary Settlement 609
Mobility 609
Proximal-Level Situational Factors 609
Cultural Differences in Products and Practices 610
Affordances 610
Prolonged Exposure 611
The Rocky Road from Distal-Level Situational Factors to Psychological Processes 612
Conclusion 613
References 614
Contributor Bios 621
Index 630