Parsing the Turing Test (eBook)

Foreword 6
Acknowledgments 8
Introduction 9
Building a Nest for the Coming World Mind 9
Turing’s Vision 10
Convergence of Multiple Technologies 12
Philosophical and Methodological Issues 14
Contents 17
About the Editors 20
Setting the Stage 21
The Quest for the Thinking Computer 22
1.1 Planning 22
1.2 The 1991 Competition 26
1.3 Speculations 30
Reference 31
Alan Turing and the Turing Test 32
2.1 Introduction 32
2.2 The Turing Machine 33
2.3 Intelligence and Intuition 34
2.4 Intelligent Machinery 35
2.5 The Imitation of Mind 37
2.6 After the Test 39
References 41
Computing Machinery and Intelligence 42
3.1 The Imitation Game 42
3.2 Critique of the New Problem 46
3.3 The Machines Concerned in the Game 49
3.4 Digital Computers 52
3.5 Universality of Digital Computers 55
3.6 Contrary Views on the Main Question 60
3.7 Learning Machines 77
Commentary on Turing’s “Computing Machinery and Intelligence” 85
References 87
The Ongoing Philosophical Debate 89
The Turing Test 90
5.1 Background to the Debate 90
5.2 The Problem of Comprehending a Large Debate 90
5.3 Our Approach: Argumentation Mapping 91
5.4 Parts of the Debate Covered in this Chapter 92
5.5 Questions not Covered in this Chapter 92
5.6 Wider Debates Covered in Other Maps 93
5.7 Important Possibilities that Argumentation Mapping Provides 94
5.8 Understanding the Turing Test Itself 94
5.9 Conclusions 101
Notes 103
References 104
References Cited in the Figures 104
If I Were Judge 106
6.1 Introduction 106
6.2 Validity of the Turing Test in Declarative Form 107
6.3 My Strategies 110
References 118
Turing on the “Imitation Game” 120
References 123
On the Nature of Intelligence 124
8.1 The Classical Approach: Its Historical Background 124
8.2 The Classical Approach: Its Actual Performance 128
8.3 Turing’s Real Legacy 130
8.4 Reevaluating Turing’s Behavioral Test 132
References 134
Turing’s Test 135
9.1 Introduction: Turing and Machine Intelligence 135
9.2 The 1950 Presentation of the Turing Test 139
9.3 The 1952 Presentation of the Test 142
9.4 Objections to the Turing Test 144
9.5 Turing’s Predictions 152
References 153
The Turing Test: 55 Years Later 155
10.1 Different Ways of Construing the Turing Test 155
10.2 From Behaviorism to Strong Artificial Intelligence 158
10.3 The Refutation of Strong AI and Its Philosophical Implications 160
10.4 Why Was Anyone Ever a Behaviorist? 163
10.5 Giving Up the Strong Turing Test 164
References 166
Doing Justice to the Imitation Game 167
11.1 Clockwise Determinism: The Formalist Interpretation of the Imitation Game 168
11.2 Anticlockwise Determinism: Some Arguments Against the Formalist Viewpoint 177
11.3 Conclusion 183
References 184
The New Methodological Debates 186
How to Hold a Turing Test Contest 187
12.1 The Scope of the Contest 187
12.2 KISS 189
12.3 Selection of Finalists 190
12.4 The Communications Program 191
12.5 Finding Human Participants to Act as Judges and Confederates 192
12.6 Judging 192
References 193
The Anatomy of A.L.I.C.E. 194
13.1 Introduction 195
13.2 The Problem 196
13.3 The Psychiatrist 197
13.4 Politicians 199
13.5 Parties 200
13.6 The Professor 201
13.7 PNAMBIC 202
13.8 The Prize 203
13.9 The Portal 203
13.10 Penguins 204
13.11 Programs 205
13.12 Categories 206
13.13 Recursion 207
13.14 Context 210
13.15 Predicates 212
13.16 Person 212
13.17 Graphmaster 213
13.18 Matching 214
13.19 Targeting 215
13.20 Defaults 216
13.21 Philosophers 217
13.22 Pretending 218
13.23 Consciousness 220
13.24 Paradox 221
13.25 Conclusion 221
References 222
The Social Embedding of Intelligence 224
14.1 Social Tests for Intelligence 225
14.2 The Impossibility of a Universal Intelligence 227
14.3 The Social Construction of Individual Human Intelligence 229
14.4 Towards Producing a Socially Embedded Intelligence 232
14.5 Living with the Result 245
14.6 Conclusion 246
References 246
How My Program Passed the Turing Test 249
15.1 Introduction 249
15.2 The AI Program 250
15.3 The AI Program Online 252
15.4 The DRAKE Conversation 254
15.5 Internet Features 258
15.6 Discussion – How to Pass the Turing Test 261
15.7 Discussion – Is the Turing Test Important? 267
15.8 The Future of AI Online 269
References 271
Building a Machine Smart Enough to Pass the Turing Test 273
16.1 How Could we get a Machine to Pass the Turing Test? 274
16.2 What Should We Get It To Do (or Not Do)? 284
16.3 What Have We Done So Far with Cyc? 287
16.4 What Will We Do to Close the Gap? 291
16.5 Conclusion 293
References 294
Mind as Space 295
17.1 Introduction 296
17.2 Subcognition and the Turing Test 297
17.3 Evolving Artificial Intelligence 298
17.4 The Minimum Intelligent Signal Test 299
17.5 Automating the Turing Test 301
17.6 Semantic Geometry 303
17.7 Affective Geometry 306
17.8 The Generation Problem 308
17.9 The Body 308
17.10 Geometry of Artificial Consciousness 309
17.11 Conclusion 309
References 311
Can People Think? Or Machines? 312
18.1 Précis of “Animal Biology and Intelligence” by Tina Langur, First Published in 1950 in CPU 59(236): 433–460 313
18.2 International Court of Human Rights: Memorandum of Opinion by Judge Millie von Artow 316
18.3 Epilogue: Can People, or Machines, Think? 327
References 328
The Turing Hub as a Standard for Turing Test Interfaces 330
19.1 Observations 330
19.2 Indications 330
19.3 Considerations 331
19.4 Recommendations 331
19.5 Implementation 332
19.6 Conclusion 335
References 335
Conversation Simulation and Sensible Surprises 336
20.1 The Loebner Prize 336
20.2 The Chinese Room 340
20.3 The Guessing Game 345
20.4 The Child Machine 348
20.5 The Turing Test 353
A Computational Behaviorist Takes Turing’s Test 354
21.1 The Turing Test Is a Test of Behavior 354
21.2 Computational Behaviorism 355
21.3 Computational Linguistics Versus Computational Behaviorism 356
21.4 Observe Behavior 357
21.5 Index Behavior for Retrieval 358
21.6 Write Answers 360
21.7 Will Computational Behaviorism Defeat Turing’s Test? 363
21.8 The Issue of Intelligence 365
References 367
Bringing AI to Life 369
22.1 Loebner Prize Contest Participation 369
22.2 Artful Intelligence as Friend 370
22.3 Algorithms 372
22.4 Data 374
22.5 Computational Hardware 376
22.6 Communications 376
22.7 Feature List 377
22.8 Programming Methods 380
22.9 Astrobot Ella — into the Cosmos 383
22.10 Privacy Concerns 384
22.11 Current Projects 384
22.12 Ultimate Goals 386
Laplace, Turing and the “Imitation Game” Impossible Geometry 387
23.1 Introduction 387
23.2 The Game, the Machine, and the Continuum 389
23.3 Between Randomness and Deterministic Chaos 394
23.4 Intermezzo 1 (Determinism and Knowledge) 395
23.5 Logical, Physical, and Biological Machines 400
23.6 Intermezzo II (Machines and Deductions) 402
23.7 Predictability and Decidability 405
23.8 Conclusion: Irreversible Versus Unrepeatable 408
23.9 Appendix: Continuous Versus Discrete Mathematics and Causal Regimes 412
References 419
Going Under Cover: Passing as Human 422
24.1 Where is the “Back Door” in the Turing Test? 422
24.2 AI: A Moving Target 423
24.3 Facing the Interrogator 424
24.4 Julia’s Real Background 425
24.5 Avoid “Artificial Stupidity” 429
24.6 Building Artificially Interesting Systems 434
24.7 Suggested Future Work 435
24.8 Guess What? 436
24.9 Summary 437
References 438
How not to Imitate a Human Being 439
25.1 The Turing Test 439
25.2 Approaches to Artificial Intelligence 440
25.3 Objections to Artificial Intelligence 446
25.4 Designing an Artificial Intelligence 450
25.5 Conclusion 452
References 454
Who Fools Whom? 455
26.1 Introduction 455
26.2 Categories of Judges 456
26.3 Logical Thinking 457
26.4 Sense of Humor 458
26.5 Language 460
26.6 Handicaped Issues 461
26.7 Association Game 461
26.8 Etiquette 462
26.9 Common Sense 462
26.10 What Is a “Program-That-Looks-Just-Like-a-Human” and Does It Have Anything in Common With “I-Could-Talk-to-This-Bot-Forever”? 463
26.11 What Does Your Bot Like to Speak About? 464
26.12 Context Understanding 464
26.13 Development of a Bot by Team 465
26.14 Conclusion 466
References 467
Afterthoughts on Thinking Machines 468
A Wager on the Turing Test 469
27.1 The Rules 469
27.2 Why I Think I Will Win 473
27.3 Why I Think I Will Win 478
27.4 Response to Mitchell Kapor’s “Why I Think I Will Win” 481
References 483
The Gnirut Test 484
28.1 Background 484
28.2 Participating Humans 485
28.3 Confederates 485
28.4 Ground Rules 486
28.5 Transcript 486
28.6 Winners and Losers 488
28.7 Conclusion 489
28.8 Postscript 489
The Artilect Debate 491
29.1 Introduction 491
29.2 Technology 492
29.3 Social Impact 494
29.4 The Cosmists 497
29.5 The Big Picture 498
29.6 Scientific Religion 499
29.7 Human Striving 501
29.8 Social Momentum 502
29.9 Military Momentum 504
29.10 The Terrans 505
29.11 Preserve the Human Species 506
29.12 Fear of Difference 507
29.13 Unpredictable Complexity 508
29.14 The Cyborgs 510
29.15 Conclusion 512
Name Index 514