International Handbook of Education for the Changing World of Work (eBook)

Dedication to David N.Wilson 6
Preface 7
Contents 18
List of Figures 37
List of Tables 44
Contributors 51
Foreword 65
Introduction 68
1 Background: The Study of Work and Occupations 68
2 Why StudyWork and Occupations? 71
3 Technical and Vocational Education and Training 72
4 The Return of TVET to the Development Agenda 74
4.1 A Time-Bomb 74
4.2 A Growing Interest 75
4.3 Promoting Partnerships 76
4.4 Open-Door Policy 76
4.5 Finding Funds 77
4.6 Investing in Future Generations 77
4.7 Example: Rebuilding in the Arab States 78
4.8 Global Trends in Technical and Vocational Education 78
5 A Short History of TVET 79
5.1 A Historical Continuum to Explain Technological Change 80
5.2 The Evolution of TVET 81
5.3 Important Trends and Changes in TVET 90
6 TVET, EFA and ESD 92
7 Key Issues and Challenges Concerning TVET 94
7.1 The Image and Status of TVET 94
7.2 After ‘Basic Education’, What? 94
7.3 The Promotion of TVET for Girls and Women 95
7.4 TVET Planning 95
7.5 TVET Facilities and Equipment 96
7.6 Workplace Health and Safety 96
7.7 The Organization and Administration of TVET 97
7.8 TVET Curriculum Reform and Development 97
7.9 Teaching and Learning 97
7.10 TVET Teacher Education 98
7.11 TVET Teachers’ Conditions of Service 98
7.12 Relationship Between TVET and Enterprises 98
7.13 The Growing Importance of ICTs for TVET 99
7.14 TVET Finance 99
7.15 Testing and Certification 100
7.16 Some Other Important Issues 100
8 Conclusion: Where Next? 101
Notes 102
References and Further Reading 102
Prologue Skills Development in the Informal Sector of Sub-Saharan Africa 108
1 Introduction 108
2 Measuring the Informal Sector 109
2.1 The Conceptual Framework 110
2.2 A Profile of Informal Sector Employment 113
3 Building a SkilledWorkforce in the Informal Sector 114
3.1 Public Technical and Vocational Education and Training 115
3.2 Private Providers of Skills 117
3.3 Enterprise Investment in Skills 118
3.4 Employers and Traditional Apprenticeship 120
4 Policies Encouraging Enterprises to Invest in Skills 123
5 Moving the Skills Agenda Forward 125
5.1 Elements of a Strategy 125
5.2 The Role of Government 127
Notes 128
References 129
VOLUME 1 131
Part I Overview 132
Chapter 1 The Pedagogical Roots of Technical Learning and Thinking 133
1 The History of Technical Learning and Thinking 133
1.1 The Russian System of Workshop Instruction 135
1.2 Sloyd: Scandinavia’s Contribution to Technical Learning 136
1.3 Manual Training in Western Europe 138
1.4 The Vocational Education Movement in the United States 141
2 The Irony of Displacing Technical Thinking and Learning 142
3 Epilogue 143
Notes 145
References 146
Chapter 2 A Conceptual Framework for Technical and Vocational Education and Training 147
1 Introduction 147
2 Nature and Role of Conceptual Frameworks 148
3 Philosophical Underpinnings 148
4 Notions of the New Economy 150
5 Components of a Conceptual Framework 152
6 Conclusions and Future Steps 161
7 FinalWords 165
References 166
Chapter 3 Towards Achieving TVET for All: The Role of the UNESCO-UNEVOC International Centre for Technical and Vocational Education and Training 168
1 Introduction: TVET Related Issues and Concerns within UNESCO 168
2 The UNESCO-UNEVOC International Centre for Technical and Vocational Education and Training 172
3 Conclusion 182
References 183
Chapter 4 TVET Glossary: Some Key Terms 185
1 Introduction 185
2 Sample Entry 185
3 Glossary 186
Part II The Changing Context ofWork and Education 203
Section 1 Changing Workplace Requirements: Implications for Education 204
Chapter I.1 Overview: Changing Economic Environment andWorkplace Requirements: Implications for Re-Engineering TVET for Prosperity 205
1 Introduction 205
2 Demystifying the New Economy 205
3 The Network Economy 206
4 New Organizational Models 207
5 The Importance of Human Capital in a Knowledge-Based Economy 207
6 The Miracle of Economic Development is within Reach 208
7 The Benefits of Education and Skills Development 210
8 Effects of the New Economy on Jobs 211
9 Effects of the New Economy on Skills 211
10 International Survey of TVET Reforms 213
11 Blueprint for Re-Engineering TVET 214
12 Overview of the Contributions 215
References 218
Chapter I.2 The Right to a New Utopia: Adult Learning and the ChangingWorld of Work in an Era of Global Capitalism 221
1 Introduction 221
2 The Global Market Utopia 222
3 Further Impact of the Global Market Utopia 224
4 Responses to Globalization 227
5 Responses from theWorlds of Adult Education and Training 228
6 The Right to a New Utopia 231
References 233
Chapter I.3 Decent Work for All: From ILO Initiative to a Global Goal 235
1 Introduction 235
2 DecentWork: The Concept and Its Relevance 235
3 DecentWork: An Aspiration, a Goal and a Policy Framework 239
4 International Initiatives to Promote DecentWork for All 241
5 The Policy Coherence Initiative on Growth, Investment and Employment 242
6 Global Policy Challenges in Skills Development 244
7 National Initiatives to Promote DecentWork for All 245
8 National DecentWork Programmes 247
9 Conclusions and Outlook 250
References 251
Chapter I.4 Redefining Gender Roles in theWorkforce 253
1 Introduction 253
2 What are Women’s Roles in the Workforce? 253
3 What Evidence of Change is Apparent? 254
4 What Education and Training Concerns are Relevant toWomen’s Roles? 255
5 How are These Concerns being Addressed by Policy? 258
6 What Should Vocational and Technical Educators do to Foster Change? 262
7 Conclusion 266
References 266
Chapter I.5 Anticipation of Skill Requirements: European Activities and Approaches 270
1 Introduction 270
2 Approaches to Identify Future Qualification and Skill Requirements 272
3 Forecasting and Early Identification Activities 273
4 Summary and Future Co-Operation 278
Notes 282
References 282
Chapter I.6 Redefining the Status of Occupations 284
1 Introduction 284
2 Occupation Defined 285
3 Redefining Occupation 286
4 Global Competition, Local Institutions and Values 288
5 Reasons for Redefining Occupations 290
6 Is There a Discontinuity Between TVET and the Employment System? 293
7 Outlook 295
References 295
Chapter I.7 ChangingWork,Work Practice: The Consequences for Vocational Education 297
1 ChangingWork, ChangingWorkers 297
2 Changes in the Kinds of Work Available 297
3 Changes in Participation in Work 299
4 Changes in the Requirements for Work 301
5 Changes in Who is Participating in Work 305
6 ChangingWork, ChangingWorkers 307
References 308
Chapter I.8 Traditional and Transitional TVET Systems 310
1 Introduction 310
2 Ancient (Traditional) TVET Systems 310
3 Transitional TVET Systems 312
4 The Contemporary Context and Reforms 318
5 Lifelong Learning, the Role of Industries and Trade Unions 319
6 Open and Distance Learning (ODL) Strategy in TVET 321
7 Conclusion 322
References 322
Chapter I.9 Partnering to Meet the Needs of a ChangingWorkplace 324
1 Introduction 324
2 The History of Work-Based Education 325
3 TheWorkplace of the Future 326
4 The Impacts of Change 329
5 TheWorkforce of the Future 331
6 Types of Partnerships 332
7 Learning Partnerships 334
8 Internship Opportunities through Partnerships 335
9 Summary and Conclusions 336
References 337
Chapter I.10 Bridging the Learning Divide: A Study into Adult Learning and Peer Mediation in theWorkplace 339
1 Introduction: The Learning Divide 339
2 New Directions for Research into Adult Learning 341
3 The Research Problem 342
4 Research Questions 343
5 Research Design 344
6 The Intervention 344
7 Additional Data Sets 348
8 Outcomes 350
9 Conclusions 350
Note 351
References 351
Section 2 Education and Training in Informal Economies 353
Chapter II.1 Overview: Education and Training in the Informal Sector 354
1 Introduction 354
2 Training Needs in the Informal Economy 355
3 Overview of the Contributions 356
Chapter II.2 Tinkering with the Tinker: Meeting Training Needs in the Informal Sector of Chad 363
1 Introduction 363
2 Characterizing the Informal Sector 364
3 The Informal Sector: A Study in Heterogeneity 365
4 The Context of Chad 366
5 Chad’s Informal Sector and Its Participants 366
6 Operating in Chad’s Informal Sector: What One Needs to Know 369
7 The Provision of Training in the Informal Sector 371
8 Implications for Policy and Practice 375
9 Conclusion 376
Notes 377
References 377
Chapter II.3 The Traditional Informal Apprenticeship System of West Africa as Preparation for Work 379
1 Introduction 379
2 Conceptual Considerations 379
3 The Development of Traditional Apprenticeships 380
4 The Types and Nature of Apprenticeship 382
5 The Traditional Apprenticeship System 383
6 The Duration of Apprenticeship 388
7 Policy Implications 390
8 Recommendations 391
9 The Research Agenda 392
References 393
Chapter II.4 Initiatives to Link TVET to Self-Employment in Ghana 394
1 Introduction 394
2 The Historical Framework of Linking Education to the World ofWork 395
3 Integrated Community Centres for Employable Skills 397
4 Skills Training and Entrepreneurship Programme 401
5 Conclusion 404
Notes 405
References 406
Chapter II.5 Criteria for Training Policy in the Informal Sector: Demands and Challenges in Latin America 407
1 Introduction 407
2 The Shreds of Literacy and Schooling in Latin America 408
3 Educational Equity and Productive Insertion 409
4 Two Orientations Guiding Skills Training Policies 410
5 In Search of Training Strategies for the Disadvantaged 412
6 Some Criteria for Policy Design 413
7 Conclusions 419
Notes 420
References 420
Chapter II.6 Informal Learning at Work: The Case ofWorking Children in Egypt 422
1 Introduction 422
2 How to Engage Working Children with Learning? 422
3 Creating Social Partnerships and Enlisting Community Support 423
4 Exploring New Learning Sites: The Case of Brick Factories 426
5 New Learning on Recycling Sites 429
6 Raising Some Crucial Questions 432
7 Conclusion 432
References 433
Chapter II.7 Informal Learning andWork: From Genealogy and Definitions to Contemporary Methods and Findings 434
1 Introduction 434
2 Expanding Concepts ofWork 434
3 Methods and Key Findings for Studying Informal Learning andWork 441
4 Conclusion 444
References 444
Chapter II.8 New Learning Spaces in TVET: The Contribution of Social Partnerships 447
1 Introduction 447
2 Approaching New Learning Spaces 448
3 Social Partnerships and TVET 451
4 Conclusion 459
References 460
Chapter II.9 Social and Cultural Aspects of Informal Sector Learning: Meeting the Goals of EFA 463
1 Introduction 463
2 Informal Sector Learning 464
3 Social and Cultural Contexts and Basic Learning Needs 465
4 EFA and the Needs of Learners in the Informal Sector 467
5 Pathways to Reconciling TVET and EFA 469
6 Conclusion 470
References 471
VOLUME 2 496
Part III Education for theWorld of Work: National and Regional Perspectives 497
Section 3 Reforming National Systems of Vocational Education and Training 498
Chapter III.1 Overview: Changing National VET Systems through Reforms 499
1 Introduction 499
2 Old, New and Continuing Issues and Their Changing Contexts 500
3 Short-Term Versus Long-Term Objectives 500
4 Reform Histories 501
5 Common Trends and Developments but No Convergence 501
6 Back to Core Business? 502
7 From Partial to Overall System Reforms? 503
8 Balancing Major Reform Drivers 504
9 Specific Drivers Remain Country Specific 505
10 Overview of the Contributions 506
Reference 512
Chapter III.2 Latin America’s Efforts in the Vocational Training of Young People from Poor Backgrounds 513
1 Introduction 513
2 Inserting Young People into the Workforce 514
3 The 1990s: Traditional Approaches and New Training Models 515
4 Testing NewWays 521
5 Some Reflections on the Future Course of Action 522
Notes 524
References 524
Chapter III.3 Accountability and Career Technical Education (CTE) Policy: A Brief Review of Six States of the United States 526
1 Introduction 526
2 Accountability and Federal Policy 527
3 What is an Accountability System? 528
4 Issues Raised in the Literature on Accountability and CTE 528
5 Methodology 530
6 Results 533
7 CTE Standards 537
8 Other Indicators of Accountability 540
9 Conclusion 541
References 542
Chapter III.4 The Regional Perspective of Vocational Education and Training 544
1 Introduction 544
2 Common Challenges 545
3 Instruments from the EU Experience 547
4 Benchmarking to Bench Learning 549
5 Facilitating and Managing Regional Learning 551
6 Towards Lifelong Learning Policies 556
7 Conclusion 557
Notes 558
References 558
Chapter III.5 Vocational Education, Training Reform and Regional Integration in the Middle East 559
1 Introduction 559
2 Regional Priorities 560
3 Principles and Criteria 561
4 Regional and International Organizations: Roles and Efforts 563
5 Case Study: Arab-German Co-operation in VET 566
6 Conclusion 568
References–English 568
Chapter III.6 The Influence of Qualifications Frameworks on the Infrastructure of VET 570
1 Introduction 570
2 The Nature of Qualifications Frameworks 570
3 Managing the Supply of Skills 572
4 Articulating the Demand for Skills 573
5 Frameworks and Institutions 575
6 Financing VET Provision 577
7 More Flexible Credit-Transfer System 579
8 A Tool for Reform 580
9 Concluding Remarks 582
Notes 583
References 583
Chapter III.7 Reforming Skills Development, Transforming the Nation: South African Vocational Education and Training Reforms, 1994–2005 584
1 Introduction 584
2 South African VET before 1994 584
3 Policy Responses, 1994–2005 586
4 Analysing the Policy Transformation Process and the Remaining Tensions 592
5 Conclusion 597
Notes 597
References 597
Chapter III.8 Reform of Vocational Education in the Russian Federation 600
1 Background 600
2 Processes of VET Reform and Modernization 601
3 Main Reform Achievements and Remaining Challenges 608
Notes 612
References 612
Chapter III.9 Vocational Education in the Netherlands: In Search of a New Identity 613
1 Introduction 613
2 The Qualification’s Structure Under Fire 614
3 The School as a Career Development Centre 616
4 Bottom-up Innovation 619
5 Between Dream and Reality 622
6 The Future 624
References 626
Chapter III.10 Facilitating Policy-Learning: Active Learning and the Reform of Education Systems in Transition Countries 628
1 Introduction 628
2 Active Learning 629
3 Educational Reforms in Transition Countries 633
4 Policy Reform is Policy-Learning 634
5 Facilitating Policy-Learning in Practice 637
6 Policy-Learning through Knowledge Sharing 639
Notes 640
References 641
Section 4 National Initiatives for Reengineering Education for the New Economy 642
Chapter IV.1 Overview: Regional Reviews of TVET 643
1 Introduction 643
2 The Status of TVET and the Role of International Organizations 644
3 Regional Strategic Efforts in TVET 650
4 Overview of the Contributions 650
5 Conclusion 654
References 655
Chapter IV.2 To Vocationalize or Not to Vocationalize? Perspectives on Current Trends and Issues on TVET in Africa 658
1 Introduction 658
2 A Brief History of TVET Policy in Africa 658
3 Current Trends and Issues in TVET in Africa 660
4 Recent Concerns over TVET in Africa 668
5 TheWay Forward and Some Perspectives 671
Note 671
References 671
Chapter IV.3 TVET in the Asian Region: Issues, Concerns and Prospects 673
1 Introduction 673
2 A New Role for TVET 673
3 The Present Scenario and Regional Context 674
4 Philosophy and Objectives 675
5 Organizational Problems and the Constraints of TVET 676
6 Policy and Planning 678
7 A National Co-ordinating Mechanism 679
8 Curriculum and Training 683
9 Costs and Funding 686
10 Regional Co-operation 688
11 Conclusion 688
References 689
Chapter IV.4 Transforming TVET Systems with the CPSC in the Asia and Pacific Region 691
1 Introduction 691
2 Regional Issues for Human Resource Development 692
3 Dilemmas and Implications for Sustainable Human Resource Development 699
4 The Important Role of the CPSC as a Catalyst 702
5 Challenges for Sustainable Human Resource Development 705
6 Concluding Remarks 707
References 707
Chapter IV.5 European Action Programmes for Lifelong Learning 709
1 Introduction 709
2 The Socrates Programme 710
3 The Leonardo da Vinci Programme 712
4 The Lifelong Learning Programme (2007–2013) 714
5 Impact of the Leonardo da Vinci Programme on Enhancement of TVET 715
6 Conclusions 720
Notes 720
References 720
Chapter IV.6 VET in the Baltic States: Analysis of Commonalities and Differences of Reforms in Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania 722
1 Introduction 722
2 VET in the Light of the Socio-Economic and Political Situation 723
3 Educational Reform Movements 725
4 The Lifelong Learning Perspective of VET in the Baltic States 727
5 The European Dimension 730
6 Drawing the Threads Together 732
References 733
Chapter IV.7 Education and Training Needs of Rural Communities: A Situational Analysis of Selected Villages in Fourteen Provinces of Fiji 734
1 Introduction 734
2 Background 735
3 Methodology 736
4 Findings 738
5 The Logic Behind the Training Choices in the TNA 741
6 Conclusion 742
References 742
Chapter IV.8 Social Partnership in Vocational Education and Training in Lithuania: Challenges and Perspectives 744
1 Introduction 744
2 The Theoretical Background of Social Partnership in TVET 745
3 Historical Background of Social Partnership in Lithuania 747
4 The Present-Day Social and Economic Developments in Lithuania 751
5 Social Partnership in the Context of the EU Enlargement Process 754
6 Challenges for Social Partners in Lithuania 756
7 Conclusions 758
Note 760
References 760
Chapter IV.9 Integrating Education andWork: The Status of Vocational Education in Brazil 761
1 Introduction 761
2 Rethinking Formal Education and Training for Work 761
3 Legal Measures in Favour of Vocational Education 762
4 Diversified Networks of TVET Institutions 764
5 Sources of Funding for TVET 768
6 Conclusion 770
Notes 771
References 771
Chapter IV.10 China’s Higher Technical and Vocational Education: Development and Reform 773
1 The System of Chinese Vocational Education and Training 773
2 Structure and Scale of Tertiary Vocational Education in China 774
3 Tertiary Vocational Education Policy in China 777
4 The Long-range Development Objectives of Tertiary Vocational Education 780
References 780
Chapter IV.11 The Adoption and Adaptation of the Work-Team Concept in Urban ThaiWorkplaces 782
1 Introduction 782
2 Learning is Required at All Levels 783
3 Learning as a Change Strategy 783
4 The Team as an Environment for Learning and Knowledge-Sharing 784
5 Dialogue within a Team is Crucial 786
6 The Thai Setting 788
7 Designing a Team-LearningWorkshop 791
8 Case Studies 791
9 Conclusion 794
References 795
Chapter IV.12 Globalization of the Labour Culture in the Republic of Korea: What ‘Tripartite Relations’ Mean forWorkers 796
1 Introduction 796
2 The ‘New Labour Culture’ 797
3 The Restructuring of Ideas 800
4 Restructuring the Content of VET Programmes 803
5 Conclusion 808
Notes 809
References 810
Chapter IV.13 Involvement of Labour-Market Partners in TVET in the Russian Federation 812
1 Introduction 812
2 The Changing Context 813
3 The Degree of Involvement of Labour-Market Partners 814
4 Communication or Discourse? 815
5 Samples of Best Practice 819
6 Signals from Enterprises 821
7 Conclusions 823
Notes 824
References 824
Chapter IV.14 Strengthening TVET to Achieve Lifelong Learning for All: Historical Snapshots and Recent Initiatives in Myanmar 826
1 Introduction 826
2 Why TVET? 826
3 TVET and Its Implications for Lifelong Learning in Myanmar 828
4 Lessons Learnt from the Myanmar Experience 839
5 Conclusions Drawn 841
Note 841
References 841
Chapter IV.15 Technical and Vocational Education and Training and Rural Development 843
1 Introduction 843
2 Rural Stigma, Urban Bias 843
3 Poverty and the Rural Challenge 845
4 From TVAET to Skills for Rural Development 847
5 Diversified Skills for Sustainable Agriculture and Rural Development 848
6 Some Examples of TVAET Basic Competencies and Skills 849
7 Critical Issues and Policy Options 853
Notes 855
References 855
Chapter IV.16 An International TVET Programme Development by the International Baccalaureate Organization 857
1 Introduction 857
2 What Are the Aims of an IB Technical/Vocational Framework? 858
3 What Are the Characteristics of Learning in Such a Framework? 861
4 Who Are the IBO’s Partners? 862
5 The IBO’s Framework for a Programme of International Education 865
6 What Are the Issues Related to the Development of Such a Framework? 867
7 Conclusion: Future Directions 869
References 870
Chapter IV.17 A Profile of TVET in the Asia and Pacific Region: A Survey of Progress, Innovations and Promising Practices 871
1 Introduction 871
2 An Overview of TVET in the Asia and Pacific Region 872
3 Policy, Planning and Management of TVET Systems 873
4 Facilitating Access: TVET for All 876
5 Relevance 881
6 Monitoring 884
References 886
Section 5 Learning for Employment and Citizenship in Post-Conflict Countries 887
ChapterV.1 Overview: Vocational Education, Social Participation and Livelihoods in Post-Conflict Countries 888
1 Introduction 888
2 Equality of Opportunity 889
3 Vocational Education 889
4 Overview of the Contributions 891
Notes 894
References 894
ChapterV.2 From Assessment to Planning: Hope for TVET in Uganda 896
1 Introduction 896
2 A Brief Overview of the Conflict in (Northern) Uganda 897
3 TVET in (Northern) Uganda 898
4 The Survey for War-Affected Youth—SWAY 899
5 Implications for Holistic TVET Programming 901
6 Concluding Remarks 904
References 906
ChapterV.3 Linking TVET to Economic Opportunities in Post-Conflict Liberia 907
1 Introduction 907
2 Politics, Conflict and Education in Liberia 907
3 What Is the Legacy of the Liberian Civil War? 908
4 Post-Conflict Recovery 910
5 What Role Has TVET Played in the Recovery Process? 910
6 What Is Economic and Manpower Forecasting? 911
7 What Is the State of Liberia’s Economy? 913
8 How Has TVET Been Linked to the Economy? 914
9 Conclusions 915
References 916
ChapterV.4 Deepening the Divide: The Differential Impact of Protracted Conflict on TVET Versus Academic Education in Palestine 918
1 Introduction 918
2 The Entanglement of Education and Conflict in Palestine 919
3 ‘Cinderella’ in Times of Conflict 922
4 Concluding Remarks 928
References 929
ChapterV.5 Co-ordinated Programming for Skills Development and Livelihoods in Post-Conflict Societies: What Promise Does TVET Hold for Southern Sudan? 932
1 Introduction 932
2 Overview of the Conflict and Its Aftermath 933
3 The Economic Context and Livelihoods 934
4 Definitions of TVET and the New TVET Policy Framework 936
5 Co-ordination Structures for Service Delivery in Southern Sudan 939
6 Concluding Remarks 941
Notes 943
References 944
ChapterV.6 Vocational Training in Post-War Sierra Leone and Liberia 946
1 Introduction 946
2 Making Amends 947
3 The Nehemiah Project 948
4 The Scars of War 949
5 Bridging the Digital Divide 950
6 Liberia 952
Notes 953
ChapterV.7 TVET and Community Re-Integration: Exploring the Connections in Sierra Leone’s DDR Process 954
1 Introduction 954
2 DDR, Reintegration and TVET 954
3 Youth, Education and Conflict in Sierra Leone 956
4 The DDR Process in Sierra Leone 956
5 Skills Training and the DDR Process in Sierra Leone 958
6 Reintegration, Communities and Livelihoods 962
References 965
ChapterV.8 TVET, Women and Conflict: Palestinians in the Lebanese CivilWar 967
1 Introduction 967
2 A History of Conflict 968
3 PalestinianWomen in the Economic Sphere 969
4 Conflict and TVET Provision 971
5 ‘Best of Times,Worst of Times’? 975
6 Conclusions 977
Note 978
References 978
VOLUME 3 1003
Part IV The Management of TVET Systems 1004
Section 6 Policy and Management of TVET Systems 1005
Chapter VI.1 Overview: Navigating the Policy Landscape: Education, Training andWork 1006
1 Introduction 1006
2 Contrasting Policy Perspectives 1006
3 The Policy Environment 1010
4 The Policy Landscape 1015
5 The Employer Link 1016
6 Addressing Low-Income, InformalWork 1019
7 Low-Growth Economies 1021
8 Overview of the Contributions 1022
References 1025
Chapter VI.2 Research for TVET Policy Development 1028
1 Research on TVET Policy-Making 1028
2 Terms 1029
3 Labour-Market Monitoring and Forecasting 1031
4 Indicators of Performance 1032
5 ‘New Models’ for TVET Systems 1034
6 Decentralization 1035
7 Alternative Models of Financing 1035
8 Encouraging Private Provisions 1036
9 Schemes to Make Industry Carry Out More Training 1036
10 Modularization of the Curriculum 1037
11 Human Resource Development 1037
12 Coping with Management Complexity 1037
13 Dual Systems of Basic TVET 1038
14 Low Dosage TVET in Mainstream Secondary Schools 1038
15 TVET for Illiterate and Semi-Literate Learners 1038
16 Keeping Abreast of Technology 1039
17 Following Up Policy 1039
18 A Stronger Research Base is Needed 1040
Notes 1040
References 1041
Chapter VI.3 The Reform and Governance of Public TVET Institutions: Comparative Experiences 1042
1 Introduction 1042
2 Governmental Reforms 1044
3 Institutional Transformations 1050
4 Macro/Micro Analysis 1053
5 Conclusions 1054
Notes 1055
References 1055
Chapter VI.4 National Versus Regional Policy Dimensions of TVET 1057
1 Introduction 1057
2 The Knowledge Economy: National and Regional Dimensions 1058
3 National and Regional Government Roles in TVET 1058
4 TVET and Regional Policy: Other Dimensions 1063
5 Australia: A Case Study 1064
Notes 1072
References 1073
Chapter VI.5 Planning for Education andWork: Alternatives and Issues 1074
1 Introduction 1074
2 Levels of Planning 1075
3 Rational Planning Perspectives 1076
4 Interactive Planning Models 1084
5 The Political Model 1088
6 Looking Ahead 1091
References 1092
Chapter VI.6 South African Technikons and Policy Contestation over Academic Drift 1095
1 Introduction 1095
2 South Africa’s Technikon Sector 1095
3 A Clash over ‘Academic Drift’ 1096
4 South Africa’s Post-Apartheid Higher Education Policies 1097
5 Conclusion 1107
References 1109
Chapter VI.7 New Policy Actions and Government Roles: China’s Reconstruction of TVET Systems Since the 1980s 1110
1 Introduction 1110
2 China’s TVET System since the 1980s 1110
3 Governmental Roles in TVET Reform and Development 1113
4 Policy Actions for the Renewal of TVET 1115
5 Discussion 1118
References 1119
Chapter VI.8 Some Generic Issues in TVET Management 1121
1 Introduction 1121
2 Centralization Versus Devolution 1122
3 Autonomy Versus Accountability 1123
4 Inputs Versus Outputs and Outcomes 1124
5 Governance Versus Management 1125
6 Public Versus Private Funding and Tuition Fees 1126
7 Public Versus Private Provision 1127
8 TVET Policy and Legal Frameworks 1128
9 TVET System Configurations 1130
10 TVET Institutional Management Systems 1131
11 Conclusions and Implications 1133
Chapter VI.9 An Overview of Contemporary TVET Management Practice 1135
1 Introduction 1135
2 Strategic and Operational Planning 1136
3 Financial Management 1138
4 Information Management 1142
5 Student Management 1143
6 Staff Management 1144
7 Course and Curriculum Management 1146
8 Managing TVET Delivery 1147
9 Managing Assessment 1149
10 Managing Physical Assets 1152
11 Quality Management 1153
12 Performance and Accountability Management 1155
13 Conclusions and Implications 1157
Reference 1157
Section 7 The Economics and Financing of TVET 1158
Chapter VII.1 Overview: Issues and Options in Financing Technical and Vocational Education and Training 1159
1 Introduction 1159
2 What are the Issues? 1160
3 Who Should Pay for Skills Development? 1161
4 Financing Mechanisms and Instruments 1162
5 Towards an Expanded Agenda: From TVET to Lifelong Learning 1162
6 Overview of the Contributions 1163
7 Concluding Remarks 1165
Chapter VII.2 Education, Skills, Sustainability and Growth: Complex Relations 1167
1 Introduction 1167
2 Sustainable Development Versus Sustainable Levels of Development 1168
3 Education for All Versus Financial Sustainability? 1170
4 The Dakar Goals and the MDGs 1171
5 Reaching and Securing the MDGs: A Sustainability Challenge 1173
6 The Paradox of Successful Growth: Little Poverty Reduction and Few Jobs 1175
7 EFA, PBET and Economic Environments 1176
8 Provisional Propositions on Education, Skill and Sustainability 1177
Notes 1178
References 1179
Chapter VII.3 Financing Mechanisms and Instruments: A Conceptual and Operational Approach 1181
Chapter VII.3 Financing Mechanisms and Instruments: A Conceptual and Operational Approach 1181
1 Introduction 1181
2 Financial Criteria for Measuring the Training Effort 1181
3 The Main Modes of Financing Vocational Training 1184
4 Financing Mechanisms in Their Institutional Context 1192
5 A Broad Typology in Which the Key Word is ‘Co-financing’ 1196
6 To Sum Up 1202
Chapter VII.4 Financing Training Through Payroll Levies 1205
1 Introduction 1205
2 Alternative Training Levy Schemes 1205
3 Rationale: The ‘Benefit Principle’ 1209
4 Coverage 1210
5 Avoiding the Misuse of Payroll Levy Revenues 1211
6 Enhancing Enterprise Training 1212
7 What Forms of Training Should a Levy-Grant Scheme Support? 1214
8 Payroll Levies: A Balance Sheet of Advantages and Limitations 1216
9 Issues in Levy Scheme Design 1216
10 Concluding Remarks 1217
Note 1218
References 1218
Chapter VII.5 Financing Vocational Education and Training in South Africa 1220
1 Introduction 1220
2 Financing the National Skills Development Strategy 1221
3 Financing the Public FET College Sector 1227
4 Conclusion 1234
References 1234
Chapter VII.6 Voucher-Financed Training for Small Businesses 1236
1 Introduction 1236
2 Background Information 1236
3 Why was a Programme Needed? 1237
4 The Design of the Programme 1237
5 The First Phase: According to Theory 1239
6 The Second Phase: From Passive to Active Strategies 1240
7 The Third Phase: Surviving Amongst Chaos 1242
8 Don’t You Want More Vouchers? 1243
9 Why Don’t You Want More Vouchers? 1245
10 Conclusions 1247
Notes 1249
References 1249
Chapter VII.7 Employers’ Participation in Training Finance: An Example from Brazil 1251
1 Introduction 1251
2 Background 1251
3 Official Inaction and Corporate Action 1252
4 Expansion for Survival 1254
5 Walking the Financial Tightrope 1257
6 Finance and the Way Forward 1260
7 In Conclusion 1262
Note 1263
References 1263
Chapter VII.8 Funding Lifelong Learning from a Life-Course Perspective 1264
1 Towards a Political Economy of Investments in Lifelong Learning 1264
2 The Political Economy of the Knowledge Society as a Risk Society 1265
3 Integrated Funding Models for Investments in Lifelong Learning 1267
4 Flexible Life Courses and Risk in the Knowledge Society 1270
5 Reconfiguring Investments in ‘Flexible Learning Lives’ 1273
6 Alternatives for Investments in the Funding of Lifelong Learning 1277
7 In Conclusion 1279
References 1280
Chapter VII.9 Economic Perspectives on Technical and Vocational Education and Training in Australia 1282
1 Introduction 1282
2 Australian Economy, Society, Education and Training 1283
3 The Structure of this Chapter 1284
4 User Choice in the Development of a Training Market 1286
5 National Qualifications Based on Industrial Competency Standards 1287
6 Employer Training Incentives 1289
7 Tuition Fees, Loans and Support for Living Costs 1290
8 Regional Issues 1292
9 Conclusion 1293
Note 1295
References 1295
Part V Teacher Education for Vocational Education and Training 1297
Section 8 The TVET Profession 1298
Chapter VIII.1 Overview: The Technical and Vocational Education and Training Profession 1299
1 Introduction 1299
2 Overview of the Contributions 1301
Chapter VIII.2 Professionalization of VET Teachers and Lecturers and Practices in TVET Institutions in an International Perspective 1309
1 Introduction 1309
2 Two Major Obstacles 1309
3 Basic Profiles of TVET Teachers 1310
4 To Increase the Professional Performance of TVET Teachers 1311
5 Changing Mission—Changing Institutions 1314
6 Professional Reality in an International Comparison 1316
7 Process Knowledge of Vocational Education and Professional Culture 1317
8 Findings Regarding the Knowledge of Vocational Education Processes 1318
9 Transformation of Professional Cultures via Individual Strategies 1320
10 Conclusion 1321
Notes 1323
References 1323
Chapter VIII.3 Teachers, Instructors and Trainers: An Australian Focus 1326
1 Introduction 1326
2 The Australian Context for Formal TVET 1326
3 VET Practitioners 1327
4 Common Challenges in Australian VET Practice 1331
5 Qualifications and Professional Development for VET Practitioners 1332
6 Final Commentary 1338
Notes 1338
References 1339
Chapter VIII.4 TVET Teacher-Training Requirements in the Russian Federation 1341
1 Introduction 1341
2 Professional and Pedagogical Education (PPE) 1342
3 Eclectic TVET Teacher Training 1344
4 Secondary PPE: Contradictions and Development Factors 1345
5 TVET Teacher-Training Personnel: Key Competences 1347
6 TVET Teacher-Training Requirements: Mapping 1347
7 Conclusion 1349
References 1350
Chapter VIII.5 TVET Teachers and Their Professionalization in China: A Problem Analysis 1351
1 The Development of the TVET Teachers’ Profession in China 1351
2 TVET Teachers’ Qualifications 1353
3 The Education and Training of TVET Teachers 1356
4 TVET Teachers’Work Activities 1359
5 Summary and Prospects 1360
Notes 1363
References 1363
Chapter VIII.6 The Development of Training Modules for Instructors 1365
1 Introduction 1365
2 Modularized Approaches to the Curriculum 1366
3 Considerations Across the Curriculum 1367
4 The Intended Curriculum 1369
5 The Enacted Curriculum 1374
6 The Experienced Curriculum 1376
7 Conclusions 1377
References 1378
Chapter VIII.7 Literacy and Learning: Are TVET Professionals Facilitators of Learning or Deliverers of Knowledge and Skills? 1380
1 Introduction 1380
2 What is Literacy: ‘Being Literate’? 1381
3 From Theory to Practice 1382
4 The Implications for TVET Professionals 1385
5 Conclusion 1389
References 1389
Chapter VIII.8 Vocational Education in the Private Sector in Brazil 1392
1 Introduction 1392
2 Concepts and Context 1392
3 The Offer of TVET in Brazil: Public Versus Private 1394
4 The Main Agencies 1396
5 Conclusion 1402
Note 1403
References 1403
Chapter VIII.9 TVET and Teacher-Training Curricula: A Developed National Perspective 1405
1 Introduction 1405
2 Research Methodology 1406
3 General Mathematical and Science Studies 1407
4 Humanities, Social and Economic Studies 1407
5 General Vocational Studies 1408
6 Educational and Psychological Studies 1409
7 Specialized Vocational Studies 1411
8 Conclusion 1412
References 1412
Chapter VIII.10 Vocational Qualifications: The Role of Trade Unions as Negotiation Fora 1413
1 The Participants in Vocational Qualification want to be Heard 1413
2 Qualifications and Vocational Education 1414
3 From the Corporation Trade Union to the Citizen’s Trade Union 1416
4 Recent Experiences in Brazil 1417
5 Possible Bipartite and Tripartite Negotiations 1423
References 1426
Chapter VIII.11 Vocational Education and Development 1427
1 Introduction 1427
2 Structural Duality and Asymmetrical Relations 1428
3 From Human Capital to the Knowledge Society 1430
4 Final Considerations 1434
Notes 1436
References 1437
Chapter VIII.12 A Technical and Vocational Teacher-Training Curriculum 1439
1 Introduction 1439
2 The Need for a Balanced School Curriculum 1440
3 The TVET Teacher-Education Curriculum 1443
4 TVET Teacher-Education Curriculum at Moi University 1445
5 Post-Graduate Studies 1447
6 Conclusion 1450
References 1452
Chapter VIII.13 Transforming Teachers’ Practice Through Action Learning 1453
1 Introduction 1453
2 Teachers and Change 1453
3 Teachers’ Learning and Development 1455
4 Action Learning: A Professional Development Method 1456
5 Managing Teacher Change: Activity and Mediation 1458
6 Managing Change: Industry Consultant Training Programme 1459
7 Evaluation of the Action Learning Methodology 1461
8 Outcomes of Action Learning for the Participants 1461
9 Utility of the Action Learning Process 1462
10 Conditions to Make Action Learning Successful 1462
11 Conditions that Inhibit Effectiveness of Action Learning 1463
12 Preference for Action Learning Against Other Approaches 1463
13 Managing Teacher Change 1465
References 1467
Chapter VIII.14 Professional Learning and TVET: Challenges and Perspectives for Teachers and Instructors 1470
1 Introduction 1470
2 Professional Competence 1470
3 The Role of Theoretical and Practical Knowledge 1473
4 Consequences for Teachers and Instructors in TVET 1478
5 Professional Learning 1482
References 1483
Chapter VIII.15 Industrial Attachments for Instructors in TVET Delivery 1486
1 Introduction 1486
2 Changing Role of TVET Practitioners 1487
3 Training of TVET Practitioners 1489
4 The Significance of Industrial Attachment for TVET Practitioners 1491
5 Models of Industrial Attachment for TVET Practitioners 1493
6 Industrial Attachment: Issues with Current Models 1497
7 Industrial Attachment for TVET Practitioners: Matters for Consideration 1498
References 1499
Chapter VIII.16 I Hate Left-Handers or Occupational Health and Safety Training 1502
1 Introduction 1502
2 Fitting a Square Peg into a Round Hole 1503
3 Health and Safety in TVET Environments 1504
4 Examples 1507
5 Conclusion 1509
References 1511
Chapter VIII.17 The Bologna Declaration and Emerging Models of TVET Teacher Training in Germany 1512
1 The Bologna Declaration 1512
2 The Prague Summit, 18–19 May 2001 1513
3 The Berlin Conference, 19–21 September 2003 1513
4 Bachelor’s and Master’s Degrees in German Universities 1514
5 The Two-Cycle System in TVET Teacher Training 1515
6 Emerging Models in TVET Teacher Training 1517
7 New Opportunities for Flexibility in Considering Career Options 1520
8 Transfer Between Programmes 1522
9 Shorter Study Periods 1522
10 Enhancement of Practical Training 1523
11 Internationalization of Degree Programmes 1523
12 Conclusion 1524
References 1524
Chapter VIII.18 Standards for Occupation-Directed Professional Development of TVET Personnel in Developing Countries 1526
1 Possibilities and Challenges of National Teacher Qualification Standards 1526
2 Criteria for Teacher Qualification Standards in Developing Countries 1529
3 An Example: TVET Teacher-Qualification Standards in Ethiopia 1531
4 The Ethiopian Draft National TVET Teacher-Qualification Standards 1537
References 1541
Chapter VIII.19 Curriculum Research and Design as a Subject of TVET Teacher Training: Practice and Experiences from Two International Projects 1542
1 Introduction 1542
2 Curriculum Research and Design 1542
3 TheWorld of Change: Asking for Vocational Professionalism 1543
4 TVET Philosophy, Teacher Training and Innovation 1545
5 Tools for Curriculum Research and Design 1547
6 Teaching Curriculum Research and Design in TVET Teacher Training 1553
7 Summary 1553
Notes 1554
References 1554
VOLUME 4 1579
Part VI Education for Work: Research, Curriculum Development and Delivery 1580
Section 9 Research and Innovation 1581
Chapter IX.1 Overview: TVET Research 1582
1 Introduction 1582
2 The Occupational Form of Work as a Point of Reference 1583
3 Fields of TVET Research 1584
4 Teaching Methods for Vocational Education 1591
5 Evaluation and Quality Assurance 1592
6 Towards an International Research Community 1593
7 Development Perspectives 1594
8 Overview of the Contributions 1595
Note 1598
References 1598
Chapter IX.2 Methods of TVET Research 1600
1 Introduction 1600
2 On the Problem of Subject-Related Research Methods 1600
3 TVET Research as Analytic and Developing Research 1602
4 The Implementation of Fundamental Methods of TVET Research 1602
5 Conclusion 1605
References 1606
Chapter IX.3 TVET Research as an Aid to Improved Policy and Performance in TVET 1608
1 Introduction 1608
2 The Framework for Analysis 1609
3 Two Australian Studies 1616
4 Final Comments 1620
References 1620
Chapter IX.4 Repositioning the Role of Research in the Innovation of TVET 1622
1 Introduction 1622
2 The Changing Position of Research in Educational Innovation 1622
3 WhatWay Forward? 1625
4 The Research Agenda 1628
5 Conclusions 1629
References 1630
Chapter IX.5 TVET Research as a Dimension of Innovation 1633
1 Introduction 1633
2 Innovation Being Re-invented 1633
3 Experience as an Innovation Factor 1636
4 Institutionalizing Innovation Capacities in VET Systems 1638
5 Prospects: Can TVET Systems Become Pillars of Innovation? 1640
Note 1641
References 1641
Chapter IX.6 Modellversuchsforschung: Pilot Project Research in Germany 1643
1 Introduction 1643
2 On the Origins and Development of Pilot Projects 1643
3 Pilot Project Research as Action and Utilization Research 1646
4 The Cyclical Research Process Proven by Quality Criteria 1650
5 Transfer and Structuration as Developmental Principles 1652
6 An Outlook 1654
References 1655
Chapter IX.7 TVET and R& D Evaluation: The Potential for Optimizing TVET
1 Introduction 1658
2 Evaluating TVET: Historical Trends and Problems 1658
3 The Purposes of Evaluation 1660
4 General Perspectives on Evaluation 1661
5 Evaluation Approaches: Utility Versus Scientific Quality 1662
6 Process-Oriented Methods of R& D Evaluation
7 Areas of TVET—Areas of Evaluation 1664
8 An Example of a Process-Oriented Evaluation Method 1665
9 Conclusion: From Evaluating TVET to Evaluation in TVET? 1667
Notes 1669
References 1669
Chapter IX.8 TVET Research Organizations and Scientific Communities: Challenges to the Institutionalization of TVET Research 1671
1 Introduction 1671
3 TVET Research at the National and Supra-National Level 1680
4 Future Perspectives 1686
Notes 1686
References 1686
Chapter IX.9 Qualifications Research 1688
1 Introduction 1688
2 Qualifications Research as Transformation of Scientific Knowledge 1688
3 Sociological Qualifications Research 1690
4 Vocational Disciplines: Occupational Studies 1693
5 Conclusions 1695
References 1695
Chapter IX.10 Measuring Educational Quality in TVET 1697
1 Overview 1697
2 The Definition of Performance Indicators 1697
3 Benefits and Limitations of Performance Indicators in TVET 1699
4 The Relation Between Institutional Characteristics and Learner Outcomes 1700
5 Recommendations for Future Research 1702
6 Conclusions 1705
References 1706
Section 10 Curriculum Development and Delivery 1710
ChapterX.1 Overview: TVET Curriculum Development and Delivery 1711
1 Introduction 1711
2 The Curriculum as a Foundation for Vocational Teaching and Learning 1711
3 The Curriculum as a Foundation for Situational Learning 1713
4 Occupational Versus Academic Curricula 1714
5 Concepts for the Development of Occupational Curricula 1715
6 The Shaping of Vocational Learning Processes 1716
7 Evaluation, Assessment and Diagnostics 1717
8 Overview of the Contributions 1718
References 1723
ChapterX.2 The Mutual Shaping ofWork, Vocational Competence andWork-Process Knowledge 1724
1 The Concept of Work-Process Knowledge 1724
2 The Origins of the Concept of Work-Process Knowledge 1728
3 The Mutual Shaping ofWork andWork-Process Knowledge 1729
4 The Mutual Shaping of Work-Process Knowledge and Vocational Training 1731
5 Vocational Curricula for Work-Process Knowledge 1733
6 An Example of the Design of a Vocational Curriculum 1733
References 1738
ChapterX.3 Situated Learning and Cognitive Apprenticeship 1741
1 Behaviourism and Cognition 1741
2 The Situated Cognition Movement 1741
3 Cognitivism and Social Constructivism 1744
4 Course of Development in Research 1746
5 Cognitive Apprenticeship 1747
References 1753
ChapterX.4 Curriculum Approaches and Participative Curriculum Development 1756
1 Introduction 1756
2 Qualifications Research and Curriculum Development 1758
3 Selected Approaches of Curriculum Development 1759
4 Summary and Prospects 1765
Notes 1765
References 1766
ChapterX.5 The Deskilling and Upskilling Debate 1768
1 Introduction 1768
2 A Period of Expansion 1768
3 Deskilling 1769
4 Objections to Braverman 1771
5 McDonaldization 1771
6 Responsible Autonomy 1773
7 New Technologies 1774
8 Varieties of Capitalism 1775
9 Flexibility and Adaptability 1777
Notes 1780
References 1780
ChapterX.6 The Pedagogy of Apprenticeship 1781
1 Introduction 1781
2 Apprenticeship: A Mediaeval Form of Training? 1785
3 Old and New Concepts of a Pedagogy of Apprenticeship 1787
4 Apprenticeship in the ModernWorld 1788
5 Traditional and Innovative Models 1789
6 Interdependence 1791
7 Conclusion and New Challenges 1794
Notes 1794
References 1795
ChapterX.7 Approaches to Designing TVET Curricula 1797
1 The Key Problems 1797
2 Pragmatic Approaches 1798
3 Systematic Approaches 1802
4 The Project Approach 1805
5 Technology-Centred Approaches 1806
6 Theoretically Mediated Approaches 1808
7 Desiderata: Insights from the General International Debate 1811
References 1812
ChapterX.8 CollaborativeWork-Related Learning and Technology-Enhanced Learning 1815
1 Introduction 1815
2 Collaborative Learning in Supply Chain Networks 1815
3 Technology-Enhanced Collaborative Learning in a Guidance Network 1820
4 Future Prospects for the Role of TVET 1825
Note 1826
References 1826
ChapterX.9 Action-Based TVET 1827
1 Introduction 1827
2 Action Regulation Theory as a Blueprint for Action-Based TVET 1827
3 Action-Based Learning and Trainee-Centred Teaching 1829
4 Learning andWork Assignments as Core Elements 1833
5 Action-Based Training within a New Didactic Approach 1835
6 Final Commentary 1837
References 1838
ChapterX.10 Vocational Learning: Contributions ofWorkplaces and Educational Institutions 1839
1 Vocational Learning ThroughWork and College 1839
2 Goals for Vocational Practice 1839
3 Learning throughWork 1840
4 TheWeaknesses of Learning throughWork 1842
5 ImprovingWorkplace Learning Experiences 1843
6 The Learning Potential of Educational Institutions 1846
7 Integrating Workplace and Educational Institution Experiences 1848
8 Learning Vocational Practice 1850
References 1850
ChapterX.11 Work-Based Learning: An English Experience 1852
1 Introduction 1852
2 Work-Based Learning 1852
3 Competitiveness 1853
4 Knowledge 1857
5 Vocational Pathways 1859
6 Work-Based Learning: Questions and Difficulties 1861
7 Conclusion 1862
Notes 1863
References 1863
ChapterX.12 Language Mastery Development within TVET for Professional Mobility 1865
1 Introduction 1865
2 Modern Market Requirements for Personnel and Language Teaching 1865
3 Language Mastery: International Perspectives 1867
4 A Model for the Selection of Language-Teaching Contents 1868
5 Student Diversity: HowWe Tackle it in a Language Classroom 1869
6 Conclusion 1871
References 1872
ChapterX.13 Why do German Companies Invest in Apprenticeship? 1873
1 Introduction 1873
2 The German Government’s Approach after the SecondWorld War 1874
3 ‘Basic’ Training Models and German Apprenticeships 1877
4 How to Understand the ‘Dual System’? 1880
5 On the Embeddedness of the ‘Dual System’ 1881
6 Financing Training in Germany: Companies’ Reasons 1885
7 Concluding Remarks 1886
References 1887
ChapterX.14 Workplace Learning: Metacognitive Strategies for Learning in the Knowledge Economy 1889
1 Introduction 1889
2 Metacognition and Teaching About Routines 1890
3 Revealing the Science in the Workplace 1894
4 Focusing on Equity in Co-op Education 1896
5 Implications for Instruction for Exceptional Learners 1898
6 Closing Comments: From Participation to Engagement 1899
Note 1899
References 1900
ChapterX.15 Literacy, Design and Technology: New Contexts for Learning and Skills Development in South Africa 1902
1 Introduction 1902
2 Re-evaluating the Curriculum and the Nature of Learning 1904
3 Design and Technology for the Twenty-First Century 1906
4 The Study: Theory, Method and Analytical Framework 1909
5 Findings and Discussion 1910
6 Conclusions 1913
References 1914
ChapterX.16 The Education Gospel and Vocationalism in an International Perspective: The Promises and the Limits of Formal Schooling 1916
1 Introduction 1916
2 The Implications of the Education Gospel 1918
3 The Conflicts of Vocationalism 1921
4 The Education Gospel and Vocationalism: What’s Right and What’s Wrong 1925
References 1928
ChapterX.17 The Vocationalization of Secondary Education: The Relationships between Vocational and Technology Education 1929
1 Introduction 1929
2 Educational Reforms for the Vocationalization of Schooling 1930
3 Technology Education Versus Vocational Education 1931
4 Vocational Education: Broader Approaches 1932
5 Technology Education 1935
6 Conclusion 1943
References 1943
ChapterX.18 Valuing Experience as well as Knowledge in Schools 1946
1 A Personal Reflection 1946
2 Knowledge Versus Experience 1947
3 Socially Constructed Knowledge 1947
4 Technical Teachers’ Testimonials 1948
5 Implications and Discussion 1952
References 1955
Section 11 Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) in Vocational Education and Training 1956
Chapter XI.1 Overview: The Growing Role of ICTs in Education and Training 1957
1 Introduction 1957
2 The Growing Role of ICTs in TVET 1958
4 Overview of the Contributions 1964
References 1968
Chapter XI.2 The Pedagogical Framework for On-Line Learning 1969
1 Introduction 1969
2 Distance Education and On-Line Learning 1970
3 The Pedagogical Framework 1972
4 Creative Thinking on the Web 1979
5 Critical Thinking on the Web 1979
6 Major Types of Web Delivery 1980
7 Guiding Principles 1981
8 Implications and Future Direction 1982
References 1982
Chapter XI.3 A Short Method for Building Web-Based Teaching and Learning Systems: the CPSC Experience 1984
1 Introduction 1984
2 The Design of E-Teaching and Learning Systems 1985
3 Implementation of E-Teaching and Learning Systems 1993
4 Maintenance of E-Teaching and Learning Systems 1993
5 Benefits and Potential Advantages of Conducting the Programme 1995
6 Conclusion 1997
Bibliography 1998
Chapter XI.4 ICT Application in TVET 1999
1 Introduction 1999
2 Policy Development for ICT-Mediated Teaching and Learning in TVET 2000
3 ICT-Mediated Teaching in TVET 2003
4 ICT-Mediated Learning in TVET 2010
References 2013
Chapter XI.5 Technology and Leadership in the Fourth Wave of Environmental Changes with Ubiquitous Technology 2015
1 The FourthWave of Environmental Changes 2015
2 Ubiquitous Computing 2016
3 Ubiquitous Computing Research Projects 2021
4 The Emerging Paradigm Shift in HRD with New Technologies 2026
5 The Innovation Needs in Human-Resources Development (HRD) 2027
6 Conclusion 2028
References 2029
Chapter XI.6 KnowledgeWorkforce Development for Computer-Supported Collaborative Work Environments 2031
1 Introduction 2031
2 The Knowledge Workforce 2032
3 Digital Works, Digital Workplaces and the Digital Workforce 2033
4 The Knowledge Workforce for the Knowledge Economy 2034
5 KnowledgeWorkforce Planning 2035
6 KnowledgeWorkforce Development 2037
7 Conclusions 2039
References 2040
Chapter XI.7 The Role of ICTs and TVET in Rural Development and Poverty Alleviation 2042
1 Introduction 2042
2 Millennium Development Goals to Reduce Poverty 2042
3 Incidence and Extent of Poverty 2043
4 Strategy for Rural Development and Poverty Reduction 2044
5 Action Plan towards the Future 2051
References 2052
Chapter XI.8 Switched on: International Approaches to Skills Development through ICTs 2054
1 Setting the Scene 2054
2 The Role of UNESCO 2056
3 The Activities of UNESCO-UNEVOC 2058
4 Conclusion 2063
Notes 2064
References 2065
Chapter XI.9 VOCED: The International Research Database on Vocational Education and Training 2066
1 Introduction 2066
2 Background to VOCED 2067
3 About NCVER 2067
4 The Australian National VET Clearing-house Network 2068
5 Other Australian Partnerships 2069
6 International Partnerships 2069
7 VOCED Coverage 2070
8 The VOCED Website 2071
9 Recent and Future Initiatives 2073
References 2076
Chapter XI.10 What are the Limits of ICTs and Media in the Delivery of TVET? An Australian Focus 2077
1 Introduction 2077
2 The Australian TVET System 2077
3 Progress and Outcomes 2079
4 Measurement of the Impact 2081
5 Technology, TVET and Lifelong Learning 2084
Notes 2087
References 2088
Chapter XI.11 Education System Profile: South Africa 2089
1 Introduction 2089
2 EconomicOverview 2090
3 Current Structure of the Education System 2091
4 Educational Plans 2094
5 Policy 2095
6 ICT Skills Development Plans 2102
7 Financing Education 2103
8 Conclusion 2104
References 2105
Chapter XI.12 Integrating TVET with Open and Distance Learning: Taking Skills Training to the Doorstep 2107
1 Introduction 2107
2 Recommendations of the ILO 2110
3 Models of Continuing TVET Programmes in India 2112
4 Capacity-Building Areas 2115
5 Building a Comprehensive System of Continuing TVET 2115
6 Conclusions 2118
References 2118
Chapter XI.13 Distance Education: The State of the Art in Career and Technical Education 2120
1 Introduction 2120
2 Overview of Distance Education 2120
3 Recommendations for the Use of Distance Education in CTE 2129
Notes 2132
References 2133
VOLUME 5 2159
Part VII Learning for Life andWork: Bridging Academic and Vocational Education 2160
Chapter XII.1 Overview: Participation in Formal Programmes of Learning and Skills Development 2162
1 Introduction 2162
2 An Overview of the Contributions 2164
References 2173
Chapter XII.2 Access to TVET for All: An Essential Basis for Education for All 2175
1 The Continuing Task 2175
2 EFA: Current and Continuing Needs 2177
3 TVET: The Necessary Component 2181
4 Conclusion 2185
References 2187
Chapter XII.3 The Challenges of TVET Global Monitoring 2189
1 Introduction 2189
2 Education and Training (UNESCO/ILO) 2189
3 Formal, Non-Formal or Informal TVET? 2190
4 General, Pre-Vocational or Vocational TVET? 2190
5 Measurement Problems 2194
Notes 2201
References 2201
Chapter XII.4 Making Global Classifications of Types and Levels of TVET 2202
1 Defining TVET 2202
2 The ISCED 1997 Classification System 2205
3 Types of TVET Provision in Different Regions 2208
4 Conclusion 2214
Notes 2214
References 2215
Chapter XII.5 Trends and Issues in TVET across the Globe 2216
1 SomeWidespread Tendencies in TVET 2216
2 Regional Diversity 2223
Notes 2228
References 2228
Chapter XII.6 Statistical Overview of TVET across Educational Levels 2229
1 Introduction 2229
2 Global Overview: TVET Programmes across ISCED levels 2229
3 Formal TVET Enrolment across ISCED Levels 2236
4 TVET at the Secondary Level (ISCED 2 and 3) 2237
5 TVET at the Post-Secondary Non-Tertiary Level (ISCED 4) 2241
6 Enrolment in ISCED 5B Programmes 2243
7 The Limitations of VGER and the Need for an Additional Indicator 2244
8 TVET and Gender: The Case of Upper Secondary (ISCED 3) 2251
9 Conclusions 2257
Notes 2258
References 2259
Chapter XII.7 The Ethics of TVET Policy and Practice: Issues of Access and Quality 2296
1 Introduction 2296
2 Ethics 2296
3 A Framework for Understanding the Ethics of TVET 2298
4 Selecting Ethical Values in TVET 2301
5 Contemporary Ethical Issues in TVET 2303
6 Conclusion 2306
References 2307
Chapter XII.8 Special Needs Education and TVET: The Perspective from the United States 2310
1 Introduction 2310
2 Background 2310
3 Legislative Initiatives 2311
4 Special Needs Education and Secondary CTE 2321
5 Conclusion 2324
References 2325
Chapter XIII.1 Overview: TVET for Youth 2329
1 Introduction 2329
2 The Emerging Paradigm: Youth, TVET and Sustainable Development 2329
3 Economic Development and Supply-Side TVET 2330
4 Understanding the Heterogeneity of Youth 2331
5 New Lenses for Working with, and for, Youth Capability in TVET 2332
6 Resourcing Devolved TVET through Social Partnerships 2332
7 Implications for TVET Policy with and for Young People 2333
8 Overview of the Contributions 2334
9 Conclusion 2339
Note 2340
References 2340
Chapter XIII.2 Skills Shortages, Over-Education and Unemployed Youth: An International Dilemma 2343
1 Background 2343
2 The Quiet Dilemma 2345
3 Understanding the Quiet Dilemma 2348
4 Solving the Quiet Dilemma 2350
5 Summary 2357
References 2359
Chapter XIII.3 New Directions for High-School Career and Technical Education in the United States 2361
1 Introduction 2361
2 Purpose 2362
3 Methodology 2362
4 The Grounding of High-School Career and Technical Education 2363
5 Purposes of Career and Technical Education 2368
References 2375
Chapter XIII.4 Occupations in Demand/Youth Employment 2379
1 Background 2379
2 Vocational Education and Training to Ensure Youth Employability 2380
3 Employment Policies for Youth 2388
4 Conclusions 2393
Notes 2394
References 2394
Chapter XIII.5 Pathways and Transitions from School toWork: Australian Experiences 2395
1 Introduction 2395
2 Schooling in Australia 2005: A Statistical Snapshot 2396
3 Post-School Learning Pathways 2403
4 Conclusion, Implications and Recommendations 2407
References 2409
Chapter XIII.6 School/Workplace Partnerships: A Case Study of Four Vocational Studies Programmes 2411
1 Introduction 2411
2 The Field of Interest 2411
3 The Analytical Framework 2412
4 Methodology 2414
5 Characteristics of the Actors 2414
6 Analysis of the Four Vocational Curricula 2414
7 Conclusion 2421
Notes 2423
References 2424
Chapter XIII.7 Vocationalized Secondary Education 2426
Chapter XIII.8 Vocational Guidance and Career Counselling in the European Union: Origins and Recent Trends 2444
Chapter XIII.9 ‘White-Collar’Work or a ‘Technical’ Career? The Ambitions of Fiji Final-Year School Students 2460
Chapter XIII.10 14–16 Year Olds Taking Vocational Courses in English Colleges: A Dumping Ground for the Disengaged or a Real Alternative? 2474
Chapter XIII.11 Reconciling the Competing Policy Platforms in TVET? Promulgating ‘the 6Es Plus Education’ for Youth through Social Partnerships 2488
Chapter XIV.1 Overview: TVET in an Ageing Society 2504
Chapter XIV.2 Policy Framework on the Retraining for Reskilling of OlderWorkers through Specialized TVET Programmes 2514
Chapter XIV.3 Reskilling for All? The Changing Role of TVET in the Ageing Societies of Developing Countries 2529
Chapter XIV.4 The Changing Context of TVET for theWorkforce in India 2544
Chapter XIV.5 The Reform of the TVET System in the Republic of Korea for an Ageing Society 2558
Chapter XIV.6 Will We Run Out of Young Men? Implications of the Ageing of the Population for the Trades in Australia 2572
Chapter XIV.7 The Ageing Labour Force and the Retraining ofWorkers in the Republic of Korea 2584
Chapter XIV.8 Technical Entrepreneurship Development for the Aged 2595
Chapter XIV.9 The Ageing TVET Workforce in Australia: Issues and Challenges 2612
Chapter XIV.10 Working and Lifelong Learning among OlderWorkers (45+) in Japan: Implications for TVET 2624
VOLUME 6 2663
Part VIII Lifelong Learning for Livelihoods and Citizenship 2664
ChapterXV.1 Overview: Adult Education for the Sustainability of Human Kind 2666
ChapterXV.2 The Emergence of ‘Workforce Development’: Definition, Conceptual Boundaries and Implications 2681
ChapterXV.3 The Challenge for ESD in TVET: Developing Core Sustainable Development Competencies and Collaborative Social Partnerships for Practice 2697
ChapterXV.4 Key Competencies: Overall Goals for Competence Development: An International and Interdisciplinary Perspective 2714
ChapterXV.5 Education and Training in the Context of Poverty Reduction 2727
ChapterXV.6 Recognition, Validation and Accreditation of Non-Formal and Informal Learning and Experience: Results of an International Study 2738
ChapterXV.7 Self-Directed Learning 2755
ChapterXV.8 New Learning Strategies and Learning Cultures in Companies 2768
ChapterXV.9 PLAR, Training and Efficient Labour Markets: The Canadian Experience 2785
ChapterXV.10 Transformative Learning Theory and TVET 2798
ChapterXV.11 The Implications of Cognitive Style to Adult Distance Education 2815
ChapterXV.12 Competency, Meaningful Learning and Learning Styles in TVET 2832
ChapterXV.13 Workplace Essential Skills in Policy and Practice: A Canadian Perspective 2848
ChapterXV.14 Adult Numeracy forWork and Life: Curriculum and Teaching Implications of Recent Research 2866
ChapterXV.15 An Innovative System of Vocational Training in the German IT Sector 2881
Part IX Assessment of Skills and Competencies 2893
Chapter XVI.1 Overview: Competencies, Qualifications and Recognition 2895
Chapter XVI.2 The Certification of Competencies 2909
Chapter XVI.3 Modularization and Modular Delivery of TVET 2925
Chapter XVI.4 Diverse Approaches to the Recognition of Competencies 2942
Chapter XVI.5 How DoWe Measure Up? Benchmarking theWorldSkills Competition 2957
Chapter XVI.6 Validation of Educational Programmes: Comparing Models and Best Practices 2970
Chapter XVI.7 Regional Accreditation and Certification of TVET Institutions 2982
Chapter XVI.8 National Qualifications Frameworks: An Analytical Overview 2996
Chapter XVI.9 Developing a National System of Vocational Qualifications 3010
Chapter XVI.10 National Qualifications Frameworks in Africa 3028
Chapter XVI.13 Quality Assurance in TVET in Romania 3079
Author Index 3096
Subject Index 3128