Morphologie / Morphology. 1. Halbband (eBook)

Inhalt / Contents 5
Vorwort 13
1. Einleitende Bemerkungen 13
2. Ziele und Grundsätze 15
2.1. Das Sprachsystem ist auf den niedrigeren Ebenen rigider strukturiert als auf den 15
2.2. Der Überblick über die morphologische Theorie ist nicht nach Denkschulen son-dern 16
2.3. Eines der Hauptziele des Handbuches ist es, die Kluft zwischen den unterschied-lichen 16
2.4. Nicht zuletzt wegen der Vielfalt der theoretischen Ansätze in der Linguistik ist die 16
2.5. Die Herausgeber sind der Auffassung, daß theoretische Betrachtungen stets durch 16
3. Aufbau des Handbuchs 16
3.1. Grundlagen 17
3.2. Begriffe und Methoden der morphologischen Analyse 17
3.3. Sprachvergleich und Sprachgeschichte 19
3.4. Praktische und interdisziplinäre Aspekte 20
4. Abschließende Bemerkungen 20
Preface 21
1. Introductory 21
2. Aims and principles 23
2.1. The linguistic system is more tightly structured by formal rules at the lower than 23
2.2. The survey of morphological theory is not arranged by schools of thought but by 23
2.3. One of the major objectives of the handbook is to help bridge the gulf between 24
2.4. The diversity of theoretical approaches in linguistics is one of the reasons why 24
2.5. In the editors’ opinion, it is essential to supplement theoretical considerations by 24
3. Structure of the handbook 24
3.1. Fundamentals 24
3.2. Concepts and methods of morphological analysis 25
3.3. Comparative linguistics and history of language 26
3.4. Practical and interdisciplinary aspects 27
4. Concluding remarks 27
I. Morphologie als Disziplin Morphology as a discipline 29
1. Der Gegenstand der Morphologie 29
1. Allgemeine Morphologie 29
2. Morphologie in der Linguistik 32
3. Morphologische Form 39
4. Zitierte Literatur 42
2. The term morphology 43
1. Introduction 43
2. Morphology in German biology 44
3. Morphology in French biology 45
4. Early use of the term morphology 46
6. Conclusion 48
7. References 48
3. Die Stellung der Morphologie im Sprachsystem 50
1. Ausgangsvorstellungen 50
2. Die Morphologie als Teil 51
3. Die Morphologie als 59
4. Die innere Struktur der 61
5. Zitierte Literatur 61
II. Geschichte der morphologischen Forschung I: von der Antike bis zum 19. Jahrhundert History of morphological research I: From antiquity to the 19th century 63
4. The Ancient Near East 63
1. Background 63
2. Genres of texts 64
3. Areas of morphology considered 65
4. Parts of speech 66
5. Theoretical concepts 66
6. Technical terminology 67
7. Reflection of pedagogical aims in 67
8. Influence from the structures of the 68
9. Ancient Egypt 68
10. References 68
5. Old Indic grammar 69
1. Introduction 69
2. General principles 70
3. Background 70
4. Pa¯nøini 71
5. Other grammarians 77
6. Influence of Indian grammarians 78
7. References 79
6. Classical Antiquity 80
1. Introduction 80
2. Classical Antiquity: Greece 80
3. The Byzantine age (330 86
4. The Latin world 88
5. Conclusion 92
6. References 93
7. Traditional Arabic grammar 95
1. Introduction 95
2. The Arabic system of 95
3. Upper and lower levels of analysis: 97
4. Relations between morphology 98
5. Minimal morphological units 99
6. Historical and cultural perspectives 100
7. References 102
8. The Middle Ages 104
1. Language study in the Middle Ages 104
2. Analytical concepts and 107
3. Word classes and their properties 112
4. Morphology in medieval European 114
5. References 117
9. Von der Renaissance bis ca. 1800 118
9. From the Renaissance to ca. 1800 118
10. Das 19. Jahrhundert 119
1. Einleitung 119
2. Voraussetzungen: Erfassung 119
18. und 19. Jh. 119
3. Sprachwissenschaftliche 120
19. Jhs. 120
4. Die Ausbreitung und 121
5. Morphologische Forschungen im 122
19. Jh. 122
6. Zitierte Literatur 129
III. Geschichte der morphologischen Forschung II: Forschungstraditionen im 20. Jahrhundert History of morphological research II: Research traditions in the 20th century 132
11. Schulgrammatik als Modell linguistischer Beschreibung 132
1. Allgemeines 132
2. Wechselwirkung 134
3. Tendenzen der deutschen 135
4. Ludwig Sütterlin 138
5. Hans Glinz 141
6. Fazit 143
7. Zitierte Literatur 144
12. Historical-comparative grammar 145
1. Introduction 145
2. Reconstruction 146
3. Doublets of two kinds 146
4. Methodological innovations: 147
5. Substantive work 147
6. Strictures 148
7. Heritage 148
8. Structuralism, Generative 149
9. References 150
13. Überblick: die europäische Tradition 152
13. Survey: the European tradition 152
14. Osteuropa 153
1. Einleitung 153
2. Rußland und Sowjetunion 153
3. Prager Schule 161
4. Polen 162
5. Weiterführende Literaturhinweise 163
6. Zitierte Literatur 163
15. France and Switzerland 166
1. Introduction 166
2. Historical morphology of 167
3. Structuralist morphosyntax 169
4. Transformationalist attempts 170
5. Contemporary work 171
6. References 172
16. Scandinavia 173
1. Introduction 173
2. Denmark 173
3. Norway 174
4. Sweden 175
5. References 176
17. Britain 177
1. Early linguistics in Britain 177
2. The London School 177
3. Conclusion 183
4. References 183
18. Germany 185
1. The 19th century 185
2. Jacob Grimm 186
3. The Junggrammatiker 186
4. The 20th century 188
5. Generative approaches 188
6. References 189
19. The Netherlands 190
1. From 1890 to the First World War 190
2. The years until 1945 191
3. Structuralist approaches 191
4. Generative approaches 193
5. Functionalist approaches 194
6. Surveys of the work 194
7. References 194
20. American Structuralism 198
1. Introduction 198
2. Early American Structuralism 200
3. Segmentation criteria 204
4. Distributionalism 206
5. Morphophonemic alternation 214
6. Generative morphology 216
7. References 217
21. Tagmemics 219
1. Introduction 219
2. Definition 220
3. History 220
4. The morphophoneme 220
5. Morphology 220
6. Morpheme formatives 221
7. Bibliographical comments 221
8. References 222
22. Generative grammar 222
1. The transformational period 222
2. Other early work 223
3. The lexicalist hypothesis 224
4. Early lexicalist morphology 225
5. Word formation 226
6. Lexical integrity 227
7. Inflection 228
8. Item and arrangement morphology 228
9. Montague 229
10. Affix ordering 230
11. Morphosyntax 232
12. Nonlinear mophology 232
13. Morphology across disciplines 234
14. References 235
IV. Grundbegriffe Basic concepts 238
23. Linguistic sign 238
1. Terminological introduction 238
2. Sign models 238
3. Types of signs 240
4. A characterization of linguistic signs 241
5. The linguistic sign 242
6. Morphology and the linguistic sign 245
7. References 250
24. Paradigmatic and syntagmatic relations 253
1. Introduction 253
2. Linguistic relatedness 253
3. Syntagmatics versus paradigmatics 254
4. Paradigmatics / syntagmatics and 255
5. Paradigmatic forces in morphology 258
6. Concluding remarks 261
7. References 261
25. Variation und Invarianz 262
1. Einleitung 262
2. Die Varianten 263
3. Die Invariante 265
4. Konditionierung 267
5. Funktion der Variation im 272
6. Variation zwischen Sprachsystemen 273
7. Zitierte Literatur 274
26. Word 275
1. Introduction 275
2. Some fundamental distinctions 275
3. The word in semantics and 277
4. Defining the word-form 279
5. The psychological word 281
6. The word cross-linguistically 282
7. Conclusion 283
8. References 283
27. Lexical and grammatical meaning 285
1. Introduction 285
2. Formal correlates of the lexical-grammatical 285
3. Semantic structures distinguishing 286
4. A general survey 288
5. Grammaticalization and the lexical-grammatical 290
6. References 291
28. Category and feature 292
1. Categories in morphology 292
2. Syntactic categories in morphology 292
3. Categories in word formation 293
4. Morphosyntactic categories and 294
5. Motivation for binary approaches 297
6. Markedness 298
7. Underspecification and redundancy 298
8. References 299
29. Markedness 300
1. Introduction 300
2. Markedness in phonology 300
3. Markedness in morphology 301
4. Markedness 303
5. Controversies about markedness 304
6. Range of application of markedness 307
7. References 308
30. Iconicity 309
1. Introduction 309
2. Morphological bulk 311
3. Incorporation 312
4. Productive contrasts 314
5. Statistical universals 314
6. Markedness and essence 315
7. References 315
31. Naturalness 316
1. Introduction 316
2. Development 317
3. Universal, system-independent 318
4. Typological adequacy 321
5. System-dependent naturalness 321
6. References 322
32. Regularity 324
1. The notion of regularity 324
2. Regularity 325
3. Regularity and productivity 326
4. Regularity and frequency 326
5. Regularity as a scalar phenomenon 327
6. Regularity and diachrony 329
7. References 330
33. Productivity 331
1. Meaning and usage 331
2. Productivity in relation to 331
3. Productivity as a property 332
4. The functions of productive 334
5. Morphological productivity as a 335
6. The actuation of morphological 337
7. Concluding remarks 338
8. References 339
V. Die Rolle der Morphologie in Grammatik und Lexikon The role of morphology in grammar and lexicon 340
34. Morphology and syntax 340
1. Morphology-syntax interactions 340
2. Syntax and internal word structure 347
3. Theoretical approaches 349
4. Morphology as a module or a 357
5. Conclusions 360
6. References 360
35. Morphology and phonology 363
1. The relations between 363
2. The morpheme 363
3. Allomorphy 364
4. The place of morphonology 366
5. Morphological structure and the 368
6. Phonological conditioning of 370
7. References 370
36. Morphology between lexicon and grammar 372
1. Grammar versus the lexicon 372
2. Lexicalist conceptions of the lexicon 373
3. Where’s morphology? 374
4. Blocking 375
5. Conclusion 376
6. References 376
37. Derivation and compounding 377
1. Introduction 377
2. Criteria 378
3. Classes of problem cases 381
4. References 387
38. Inflection and derivation 388
1. Differences between 388
2. Split morphology? 394
3. References 396
VI. Einheiten der morphologischen Struktur Units of morphological structure 398
39. Lexical, morphological and syntactic symbolization 398
1. Introduction 398
2. Symbolization types 398
3. Reduction in phonetic content 399
4. Fusion 400
5. Grammatical factors 401
6. Semantic factors 401
7. Meanings possible for each type of 403
8. References 404
40. Word boundaries 405
1. Introduction 405
2. Semantic criteria 406
3. Distributional criteria 407
4. Phonological criteria 410
5. Word boundaries 412
6. Concluding remarks 414
7. References 415
41. Clitics 416
1. Introduction 416
2. Identifying clitics 417
3. Clitic types 420
4. Special properties of clitics 423
5. Clitic semantics 428
6. Diachrony and clitics 429
7. References 430
42. Internal structure of words 432
1. Introduction 432
2. Segmentation of words into 432
3. Linear order 434
4. Hierarchical structure 435
5. Morphological and prosodic 441
6. References 442
43. Submorphemische Einheiten 445
1. Motive für die Annahme 445
2. Aus der Forschungsgeschichte 446
3. Methodische Fragen 448
4. Zur Typologie 450
5. Zur Diskussion um 452
6. Zitierte Literatur 453
44. Phonotactic properties of morphological units 455
1. Introduction 455
2. Phonotactic constraints and their 455
3. Phonotactic constraints: 458
4. Morphologically relevant 459
5. The interplay between phonology 461
6. References 462
45. Nullelemente in der Morphologie 463
1. Zur Motivation von Nullelementen 463
2. Abgrenzungen 464
3. Aus der Wissenschaftsgeschichte 465
4. Nullallomorphe und Nullmorpheme 466
5. Nullableitung 472
6. Leere Morphe 475
7. Zitierte Literatur 475
VII. Allomorphie Allomorphy 479
46. Morphem, Morph und Allomorph 479
1. Einleitung 479
2. Terminologie und Begriffsgeschichte 479
3. Komponenten der 481
4. Minimalität 482
5. Semantische Wertigkeit 484
6. Substantialität 486
7. Rekurrenz 487
8. Unähnlichkeit 487
9. Zitierte Literatur 488
47. Phonologische Konditionierung 491
1. Formale und distributionelle 491
2. Primäre und sekundäre 491
3. Phonologische Prozesse 493
4. Phonologisch konditionierte 497
5. Interaktion verschiedener Arten 497
6. Theoretische Perspektiven 498
7. Zitierte Literatur 500
48. Morphologische und syntaktische Konditionierung 501
1. Typen morphologischer 501
2. Typen lexikalischer 502
3. Typen grammatischer 504
4. Beschränkungen für 505
5. Phonologische vs. morphologische 506
6. Komplex konditionierte Morpheme: 507
7. Syntaktische Konditionierung 508
8. Zitierte Literatur 511
49. Fluctuation and free variation 512
1. Definition of free variation 512
2. Free variation 513
3. Definition of fluctuation 514
4. Examples of fluctuation 514
5. Fluctuation as an indicator of 516
6. References 516
50. Generalized representations 517
1. Introduction 517
2. Morphophoneme 518
3. Archiphoneme 520
4. Prosody and phonematic unit 522
5. Archi-segment 524
6. References 526
51. Underlying forms 527
1. Introduction 527
2. Representations and rules in 528
3. Reasons for underlying 529
4. Rule interaction and rule generality 530
5. Abstractness 531
6. Phonological irreversibility 534
7. Domains 535
8. A historical perspective 536
9. References 537
52. Suppletion 538
1. Introductory remarks 538
2. The notion of suppletion 539
3. Typology of suppletion 543
4. Theoretical aspects 547
5. Diachronic change 548
6. Pseudo-suppletion 548
7. References 549
VIII. Formale Prozesse Formal processes 551
53. Morphological processes 551
1. Introductory remarks 551
2. The notion of morphological 551
3. Typology of morphological 554
4. Zero processes 559
5. Problems of delimitation 559
6. Non-uniqueness of solutions 561
7. References 562
54. Prefixation, suffixation and circumfixation 563
1. Terminology 563
2. Formal properties 564
3. Common functions 566
4. Distribution of affix position 567
5. Theoretical issues 569
6. References 571
55. Infixation 573
1. Definition and terminology 573
2. Formal properties 574
3. Meanings 576
4. Distribution 576
5. Why does infixation exist? 577
6. References 578
56. Transfixation 580
1. Definition and overview 580
2. Segmental transfixation 581
3. Shape-defining morphology 582
4. References 584
57. Reduplication 585
1. Definition 585
2. Formal characteristics and subtypes 586
3. Typical meanings and functions 588
4. Cross-linguistic distribution 589
5. Theoretical problems 589
6. References 594
58. Substitution of segments and features 595
1. Definition and terminology 595
2. Characteristic formal properties 596
3. Typical meanings and functions 598
4. Theoretical issues 598
5. References 602
59. Metathesis 604
1. Types of metathesis 604
2. Morphological metathesis 605
3. Diachronic origins 607
4. Theoretical problems 608
5. References 609
60. Subtraction 609
1. Introduction 609
2. Terminology 610
3. The Notion of subtraction 610
4. Characteristic formal properties 611
5. Typical meanings 612
6. Cross-linguistic distribution 613
7. Theoretical problems 613
8. References 614
61. Suprasegmental processes 615
1. Introduction 615
2. The study of tonal morphology 616
3. Word-level tonal morphology 617
4. Phrasal tonal morphology 619
5. References 621
IX. Flexion Inflection 623
62. Lexeme, word-form, paradigm 623
1. The scope of inflection 623
2. Definitions: word-form, 623
3. Paradigm 624
4. The external delimitation of 625
5. The internal structure of paradigms 627
6. Stems 633
7. References 634
63. Meaning vs. use in inflection 635
1. Approaches to grammatical 635
2. General meaning 636
3. Basic meaning 638
4. Uses of inflectional forms 640
5. System and environment 642
6. References 643
64. Exponence 644
1. Introduction 644
2. Types of exponence in morphology 646
3. Zero in exponence 653
4. Constraints on patterns of 654
5. Exponence 655
6. References 657
65. Inflection classes 658
1. Inflection classes and paradigms 658
2. Traditional styles 659
3. Inflectional subclasses 659
4. Factors which may determine 661
5. Constraints 662
6. Principal parts and reference forms 663
7. Origin and development of 664
8. References 665
66. Synkretismus 666
1. Definition und Abgrenzung 666
2. Formaler und funktionaler 669
3. Funktionaler Synkretismus 669
4. Synkretismus und Typen 673
5. Zitierte Literatur 674
67. Defectivity 675
1. The notion defectivity 675
2. Types of inflectional defectivity 676
3. Frequency profiles of paradigms 679
4. Concluding remarks 681
5. References 682
68. Periphrasis 682
1. Defining periphrasis 682
2. Suppletive periphrasis I: 684
3. Suppletive periphrasis II: 685
4. Categorial periphrasis 688
5. Periphrasis in inflection, derivation, 689
6. Periphrasis forms 690
7. Conclusion 691
8. References 691
X. Wortarten Word classes 693
69. Wortart, syntaktische Funktion, syntaktische Kategorie 693
1. Zur Rolle von Wörtern im Satz 693
2. Syntaktische Funktionen 693
3. Syntaktische Kategorien 698
4. Zitierte Literatur 700
70. Kriterien für die Definition von Wortarten 702
1. Terminologische Vorbemerkung 702
2. Die traditionelle Praxis der 702
3. Kritik am synkretistischen 703
4. Kriterienreine Wortartensysteme 704
5. Kriterien hierarchisierende 706
6. Wortartensysteme 707
7. Die X-Bar-Theorie: 709
8. Theoretische Probleme 709
9. Zentrum und Peripherie: 713
10. Semantische Theorien 714
11. Wortarten und Valenz 717
12. Offene Fragen und 718
13. Zitierte Literatur 718
71. Wortartensysteme in der Linguistik 721
1. Zum Begriff der Wortarten 721
2. Entwicklung des traditionellen 722
3. Tradierung der griechisch-römischen 724
4. Wortartensysteme in der 725
5. Auseinandersetzung mit dem 726
6. Übertragung des traditionellen 729
7. Traditionelle Wortartensysteme in 730
8. Zitierte Literatur 732
72. Word classes in the world’s languages 736
1. Cross-linguistic identification of 736
2. Individual word classes 738
3. Languages with no morphologically 748
4. Is the noun-verb distinction 748
5. Explaining word class systems 754
6. Word class systems in typological 756
7. Uncommon abbreviations 757
8. References 757
2. The concept ‘noun’ 1
3. Semantic properties 1
4. Nominal categories 763
5. Major subclasses 773
6. Morphological structure 776
7. Syntactic functions 782
8. Linguistic evolution 783
9. References 783
74. Adjective 785
1. Introduction 785
2. Morphological categories 786
3. Derivational processes 790
4. Syntactic functions 792
5. Semantic properties 795
6. References 796
75. Numeral 798
1. The numeral as a part of speech 798
2. Kinds of numeral discourse 799
3. The unmarked status of cardinal 799
4. The mathematical structure of 800
5. The expression of mathematical 804
6. Extensions 807
7. Cardinal numerals 808
8. Non-cardinal series of numerals 808
9. References 810
76. Pronoun and article 811
1. Introduction 811
2. Pronouns and articles as 811
3. Pronouns 812
4. Articles 819
5. Parallels and correlations 821
6. References 821
77. Verb 822
1. Introduction 822
2. The lexical composition of verbs 823
3. Lexical classes that are 825
4. Morphology 827
5. The formation of verbs 828
6. Inflectional morphology 832
7. Implicational universals 833
8. Grammaticized verbs 834
9. Uncommon Abbreviations 835
10. References 835
78. Auxiliary 836
1. Auxiliaries as a morphological class 836
2. Paradigmatic vs. 838
3. Auxiliaries and verbhood 844
4. References 846
79. Minor word classes 848
1. Introduction 848
2. Adpositions 851
3. Conjunctions 856
4. Particles 857
5. Adverbs 858
6. Uncommon abbreviations 858
7. References 858
XI. Wortbildung I: Grundprobleme Word formation I: Fundamental problems 860
80. System vs. norm: coinage and institutionalization 860
1. The need for new words 860
2. Ways of making new words 861
3. Word-formation: process or state, 861
4. Actual and possible words 861
5. System and norm and gaps 862
6. Restrictions on new words and 863
7. Coining new words: terminology 863
8. Conscious and unconscious coining 863
9. Institutionalization 864
10. Institutionalization and 865
11. Conclusion 866
12. References 866
81. Correspondence between formal and semantic relations 868
1. Asymmetries between 868
2. Polyfunctionality 870
3. Polysemy 872
4. Synonymy 876
5. Polyfunctionality: 876
6. References 878
82. Compositionality of meaning 879
1. The compositionality principle 879
2. Deviations from compositionality 880
3. Conclusions 884
4. References 884
83. Inheritance 885
1. Inheritance phenomena 885
2. Inheritance and percolation 888
3. Inheritance of syntactic valency 889
4. The optionality 891
5. Restrictions on inheritance 892
6. References 892
84. Base and direction of derivation 893
1. Base and direction of derivation 893
2. Theoretical background 894
3. The principle of directionality 895
4. Bases and morphological units 896
5. Order of affixation 897
6. Towards a solution 898
7. Derivational direction without 898
8. Base as basic member of a 899
9. Problematic phenomena 900
10. Allomorphy and suppletion 902
11. References 903
85. Produktivitätsbeschränkungen 905
1. Vorbemerkungen 905
2. Übereinzelsprachliche Aspekte 905
3. Einzelsprachliche regelübergreifende 907
4. Regelspezifische Aspekte 908
5. Zitierte Literatur 911
XII. Wortbildung II: Prozesse Word formation II: Processes 914
86. Die Klassifikation von Wortbildungsprozessen 914
1. Zum Begriff Wortbildung 914
2. Klassifikationsprinzipien 915
3. Kombination von Stämmen 917
4. Affigierung 918
5. Substitution 921
6. Subtraktion 921
7. Konversion 922
8. Spezifik nichtnativer Einheiten 923
9. Zitierte Literatur 923
87. Composition 925
1. Definition of composition 925
2. Theoretical treatments of 931
3. Role of composition in different 939
4. References 941
88. Incorporation 944
1. Characteristics of noun 944
2. Delimitation of the construction 948
3. Some theoretical issues 951
4. Diachrony 953
5. Areal extent 954
6. Uncommon abbreviations 955
7. References 955
89. Derivation 957
1. General considerations and 957
2. Formal classification 961
3. Historical considerations 964
4. Semantic and syntactic 966
5. Typological considerations 968
6. References 969
90. Conversion and category indeterminacy 971
1. Introduction 971
2. Terminology 972
3. Arguments for conversion 974
4. Patterns of conversion in English 976
5. Other Indo-European and 978
6. References 979
91. Blending 980
1. Definition, Delimitation, Synonyms 980
2. Properties and subclassifications 981
3. Role of blending 984
92. Clipping and acronymy 984
1. Definitions 984
4. References 984
2. Research on word shortening 986
3. References 991
93. Creative Processes 991
1. Introduction 991
2. Whole-word constructions 993
3. Affixed constructions 995
4. Reduplicative constructions 998
5. Conclusion 1000
6. References 1000