Spain

Javier Tusell was Professor of Contemporary History at the National University of Distance Learning (UNED). Best known as a historian of contemporary Spain, he published more than 50 books on the subject in his lifetime. During an early foray into politics, he negotiated the return to Spain of Picasso’s anti-war masterpiece, Guernica, and was elected UCD councillor for Madrid in 1979. Latterly he became a respected media commentator on Spanish history and especially the Franco dictatorship. Translator Rosemary Clark, college lecturer at Downing College, is an affiliated lecturer in Spanish at the University of Cambridge specializing in Modern Peninsular Spanish literature, history, and culture. Particular interests are post-colonialism, Spain and Africa, religious issues, and regionalism.

Note on the Author viii

Introduction 1

Franco: Biography and Political Practice 2

Francoism: A Form of Dictatorship 12

Victors and Vanquished: The Disasters of the Civil War and Repression 20

Exile and the Start of the Postwar Period in Spain 26

Bibliography 31

Notes 33

1 The Temptation of Fascism and the Will to Survive (1939 –51) 34

A Failed Attempt to Make Spain Fascist 35

The Temptation to Intervene and Internal Conflict (1940–2) 40

Stumbling Progress towards Neutrality (1942–5) 48

Cosmetic Change: Regime Politics between 1945 and 1951 58

Opposition from Survivors: The Spanish Left from 1939 to 1951 65

The Monarchist Alternative 72

Franco in Isolation 75

The “Dark Night”: Autarchy and Rationing in the 1940s 82

Culture: Penance and Survival 92

Bibliography 102

Notes 106

2 The Years of Consensus: The High Point of the Regime (1951– 65) 107

The End of International Isolation: The Concordat and Pacts with the United States 108

Spain and Europe: Colonization of Morocco Ends 114

The Regime and the Opposition up to 1956 119

A New Political Opposition 128

For or against Falange: Political Life under the Regime between 1956 and 1965 136

The Easing of Autarchy and the Change in Economic Policy 147

From Political Opposition to Social Opposition 159

Culture in the Francoist Middle Period: The End of the Penitential Years 166

Daily Life and Leisure Activities 177

Bibliography 182

Notes 186

3 Economic Development, Apertura, and the Late Franco Years (1966–75) 187

Economic Development in the 1960s and 1970s 189

The Modernization of Spanish Society 197

The Change in Spanish Catholicism 202
Apertura (1965–9) 211

The Succession. Matesa and Internal Splits in the Regime 217

Worker Protest. Terrorism 221

Late Francoism: Carrero Blanco as President 228

Late Francoism: Arias Navarro’s Government 233

Opposition Activity: The Road to Unity 237

Spain and the Western World 247

Late Decolonization: Guinea and the Sahara 252

A Politically Committed Culture? 256

Spain at the Time of Franco’s Death 262

Bibliography 267

4 The Transition to Democracy (1975 – 82) 270

The Monarchy: King Juan Carlos I 273

The Death-throes of the Past 275

Adolfo Suárez: The Road from Liberalization to Democracy 281

Facing Difficulties: Terrorism and the Military Coup 285

Parties and Elections 289

The Long Road towards a Constitution 293

An Unresolved Issue: Nationalism and Terrorism 299

The Triumph and Fall of Adolfo Suárez 303

The Army and the Transition: February 23 306

Calvo Sotelo’s Government and the Crisis in Center Politics 311

Foreign Policy 314

Economic Policy and Social Change 318

October 1982: The End of the Transition 321

Bibliography 326

5 Consolidating Democracy: The Socialist Government (1982 – 96) 329

Felipe González and the Two Souls of Spanish Socialism 330

The Socialists’ First Term in Office. Reform of the Armed Services, an Economic Update and Foreign Policy 336

A Means of Consolidating Democracy. The GAL 344

Elections and Public Opinion in the Second Half of the 1980s 349

The Second Term in Office: Social Policies and Union Protests. Spain and the World 354

Policy on the Autonomous Communities: A New Vertebrate Structure for the Spanish State 359

The Loss of an Absolute Majority 366

A Tense Term of Office (1993–6) 373

The 1996 General Election. Drawing up the Balance on the Socialists’ Time in Government 380

Culture in the Post-Franco Period 385

From a Time of Rediscovery to a State Culture 390

Fields of Creativity 400

Bibliography 407

6 The Turn of the Right (1996 –2004) 410

The Popular Party in Power: José María Aznar 410

Success in Economic and Social Policies 412

The Dark Side of the Right 414

A Pluralistic Spain: Nationalities and Terrorism 418

Government and Opposition. The Elections in March 2000 423

The Style of Government with an Absolute Majority 429

The Limits of PSOE Renewal 431

Dramatic Basque Elections 433

The Policy of Making Pacts and Breaking with Consensus 436

The PP: Idyllic Peace and Neo-conservatism 439

From More to Less: Government Policy in the Second Four-year Term 443

The Final Straight 448

Bibliography 454

Notes 455

Index 456