Handbook of Contemporary Sociological Theory (eBook)

Seth Abrutyn is an Assistant Professor of Sociology at the University of Memphis. Trained as a theorist, his interests include mental health, social psychology, emotions, in addition to sociocultural evolution and religion. In short, his work emphasizes synthesizing disparate theories in order to make more robust and comprehensive theoretical principles. His primary research focuses on the elucidating the links between meso-level structural and cultural forces and micro-level dynamics that shape adolescent suicide. His work on suicide can be found in the American Sociological Review, Sociological Theory, Journal of Health and Social Behavior, and Society and Mental Health. 

Dedication 6
Foreword 7
Acknowledgements 11
Contents 12
Contributors 15
1: Introduction 17
1.1 Orienting Ourselves 17
1.2 Three Challenges 18
1.2.1 The Time Crunch 19
1.2.2 The Slavish Adherence Principle 20
1.2.3 The Conceptual Crunch 22
1.3 An Overview 22
1.3.1 Classic Questions 23
1.3.2 Levels of Social Reality 24
1.3.2.1 Rethinking the Macro-Micro Link 25
1.3.2.2 From Top to Bottom 26
1.3.3 Theorizing the Social World 27
1.3.3.1 Constraints on the Lived Experience 27
1.3.3.2 Modes of Change 28
1.4 Conclusion 29
References 29
Part I: Classical Questions Contemporalized 32
2: Integrating and Disintegrating Dynamics in Human Societies 33
2.1 Approaching the Analysis of Integration in Societies 33
2.2 The Macrodynamics of Integration 34
2.2.1 Structural Mechanisms of Integration 35
2.2.1.1 Segmentation 35
2.2.1.2 Differentiation 36
2.2.1.3 Interdependencies 37
2.2.1.4 Segregation 39
2.2.1.5 Domination and Stratification 39
2.2.1.6 Intersections 40
2.2.1.7 Cultural Integration 41
2.3 The Microdynamics of Integration 43
2.3.1 Basic Conditions of Emotion Arousal 44
2.3.2 The Distribution of Generalized Symbolic Media 45
2.3.3 Meeting Expectations and Receiving Positive Sanctions 45
2.3.4 Transactional Needs and Their Effects on Meeting Expectations and Receiving Positive Sanctions 46
2.4 Mesodynamics of Integration 48
2.4.1 Fields and Niches Among Corporate Units 49
2.4.1.1 The Ecology of Corporate Units 49
2.4.1.2 Structural and Cultural Fields 50
2.4.2 Intersection and Consolidation Among Categoric Units 53
2.5 Conclusion 54
References 54
3: Power in Organizational Society: Macro, Meso and Micro 56
3.1 Introduction 56
3.2 The Macro Approach to Power 58
3.3 The Micro Approach to Power 60
3.4 Introducing the Meso-Level 62
3.4.1 A Brief History of the Emergence of Organizational Society 63
3.4.2 Empowering Organizations 65
3.4.3 The Nature of Power in Organizations 66
3.5 Connecting the Micro with the Meso Level Analysis of Power 68
3.6 Connecting the Macro with the Meso Level Analysis of Power 70
3.7 Conclusions 71
References 72
4: Action in Society: Reflexively Conceptualizing Activities 75
4.1 Sovereignty, Rational Action, and the Puzzles of Modernity 75
4.2 Thinking About Appropriate Activity Concepts 77
4.3 Action in Modern Social Thought 79
4.3.1 Individualism 79
4.3.2 Communalism 81
4.3.2.1 Emergent Social Facts: Sociology Without Activity Concepts 81
4.3.2.2 Social Activity Concepts 83
4.3.2.3 Weaknesses and Strengths of Established Social Action Theories 88
4.4 Action-Reaction Effect Sequences 89
4.5 Conclusion 92
References 93
5: Interactionism: Meaning and Self as Process 96
5.1 Introduction 96
5.2 Research Projects 98
5.2.1 Patterns of Self: “Becoming a…” 98
5.2.2 Situational Patterns: Institutional Constraints and Actors’ Pragmatics 99
5.2.3 Patterns of Collectivity 101
5.3 Interactionism: Challenges and Developments 102
5.3.1 The Tricky Problem of Culture 104
5.4 So Where Does This All Leave Us? 107
References 108
6: Cultural Theory 110
6.1 Introduction 110
6.2 The Sociological Classics as Pre-cultural Theorists 112
6.2.1 The Germanic Tradition 112
6.2.2 Marx and Engels’s “Big” Idea 113
6.2.3 Max Weber’s Little Ideas 114
6.2.4 Emile Durkheim’s Représentations 115
6.3 Enter “Culture”: Talcott Parsons 117
6.3.1 Parsons Invents “Culture” 118
6.3.2 Culturalizing the Classics 121
6.3.3 Classical Socialization Theory 122
6.4 Contemporary Cultural Theory: Fighting the Parsonian Ghost in the Machine 123
6.4.1 The Problem of “cultural depth” 124
6.4.2 Reactions to the (Over)reaction 125
6.4.3 Whatever Happened to the Cultural System? 126
6.5 Conclusion 128
References 130
Part II: Rethinking the Macro-Micro Link 132
7: The Macro and Meso Basis of the Micro Social Order 133
7.1 Introduction 133
7.2 A Simple Conceptual Scheme 133
7.2.1 Levels of Social Reality 134
7.2.2 Embedding 135
7.2.3 Structure and Culture 135
7.2.4 Evolution of the Social Universe 136
7.3 The Macro Level of Social Reality 136
7.3.1 Selection Pressures and the Formation of Macro Reality 136
7.3.2 Properties of the Macro Realm of Reality 138
7.3.2.1 Cultural Properties of the Macro Realm 138
7.3.2.2 The Ordering of Cultural Elements 139
7.3.2.3 Structural Properties and Dynamics of the Macro Realm 142
7.4 The Meso Realm of Social Reality 144
7.4.1 The Cultural Beliefs of Corporate and Categoric Units 144
7.4.1.1 Beliefs in Corporate Units 144
7.4.1.2 Beliefs About Categoric Units 144
7.4.2 The Structure of Corporate and Categoric Units 144
7.4.2.1 Successive Embedding 145
7.4.2.2 Consolidation and Intersection 146
7.5 The Micro Level of Social Reality 147
7.5.1 The Culture of Situational Expectations in Micro-level Encounters 147
7.5.2 The Structural Properties of Micro Reality 148
7.5.2.1 The Nature of Status 148
7.5.2.2 The Nature of the Corporate Units 148
7.5.2.3 Boundary Markers and Rituals 149
7.6 Motivational and Emotional Dynamics in Encounters 150
7.6.1 Meeting the Expectations States Generated by Transactional Needs 150
7.6.2 Receiving Positive or Negative Sanctions 152
7.7 Comparing Top-Down with Bottom-Up Explanations 153
7.8 Conclusion 155
References 156
8: The Problem of Social Order in Nested Group Structures 159
8.1 Introduction 159
8.2 Theoretical Orientation 161
8.2.1 Concept of Social Order 161
8.2.2 Emotions and Social Order 162
8.2.3 Research Evidence 162
8.3 Theoretical Mechanisms 164
8.3.1 Autonomy and Control 164
8.3.2 Interaction Frequency 165
8.3.3 Tasks and Shared Responsibility 167
8.3.4 Interconnections of Proximal and Distal Groups 169
8.3.5 Comparing Our Approach to Jon Turner’s 170
8.4 Developing a New Theoretical Formulation 172
8.4.1 The Argument 172
8.5 Conclusion 174
References 175
9: Social Networks and Relational Sociology 177
9.1 Introduction 177
9.2 Holism and Individualism 178
9.3 Networks, Interactions and Ties 181
9.3.1 Interdependence and Power 183
9.3.2 From Dyads to Triads and Networks 183
9.4 Social Worlds and the Social World 184
9.5 Analyzing Networks 184
9.5.1 The Whole Network 186
9.5.2 Subgroups 187
9.5.3 Node Level Properties 187
9.6 Structure and Agency 188
9.7 Micro and Macro 189
9.8 Conclusion 192
References 192
10: Varieties of Sociological Field Theory 194
10.1 Introduction 194
10.2 Common Themes in Field Theories 195
10.3 Classical Roots of Contemporary Sociological Field Theory 196
10.4 Contemporary Elaborations of Sociological Field Theory 197
10.4.1 Bourdieu’s Field Theory 197
10.4.2 Neo-institutional Theory of Fields 198
10.4.3 Strategic Action Fields 199
10.5 Agency and Actors 201
10.5.1 Bourdieu’s Field Theory 201
10.5.2 Neo-institutional Field Theory 202
10.5.3 Strategic Action Fields 203
10.6 Field Emergence, Stability, and Change 205
10.6.1 Bourdieu’s Field Theory 205
10.6.2 Neo-institutional Field Theory 206
10.6.3 Strategic Action Fields 207
10.7 Discussion and Conclusion 209
References 211
Part III: A Coherent Social Universe 214
11: Institutional Spheres: The Macro-­Structure and Culture of Social Life 215
11.1 Introduction 215
11.2 The Many Varieties 216
11.3 Institutional Spheres 217
11.3.1 Evolutionary Institutionalism 218
11.3.1.1 Sociocultural Evolution 219
11.3.1.2 The Material Exigencies 220
11.3.1.3 Universal Human Concerns 221
11.3.1.4 Institutional Entrepreneurship 223
11.3.2 Institutional Ecology and the Dynamics of Institutional Space 224
11.3.2.1 Macro Ecology 225
11.3.2.2 Micro Reality 228
11.3.3 Meso-Level Entrepreneurs 230
11.3.3.1 Secondary Entrepreneurs 230
11.3.3.2 Interstitial Liaisons 231
11.3.3.3 Margins, Outsiders, and Radicalism 231
11.4 Institutional Spheres in Four Dimensional Space 232
11.4.1 Physical Reality 232
11.4.2 Temporal Reality 232
11.4.3 Social Reality 233
11.4.4 Symbolic Reality 233
11.5 Conclusion 233
References 234
12: Stratification 237
12.1 Introduction 237
12.2 The Wealth and Poverty of Nations 238
12.3 Within Country Inequality 240
12.3.1 General Theories 240
12.3.2 Economic Development, the Kuznets Curve, and the “Great U-turn” 240
12.3.3 Globalization, Skill Biased Technological Change, and Skill-Wage Premiums 242
12.3.4 The Accumulation of Wealth and the Ascendance of Finance Capital 243
12.4 Class, Gender, and Race 243
12.4.1 Class Inequality 243
12.4.2 Gender Inequality 245
12.4.3 Racial Inequality 246
12.5 (De)stratifying Institutions 248
12.6 Conclusions 250
References 251
13: The Concept of Community as Theoretical Ground: Contention and Compatibility Across Levels of Analysis and Standpoints of Social Processes 254
13.1 Introduction: Community as a Theoretical Linkage 254
13.2 Community, Association, and Locality: Historical Antecedents 256
13.2.1 Problems of Association: Individuals, Community, and Society 256
13.2.2 Greek Conception: Community for Common Good and Locality as Place 257
13.2.3 Medieval Christian Conceptions: Community as Organic and Universal 258
13.2.3.1 The Age of Enlightenment: Community as Contract for Individual Good 258
13.3 Community, Association and Locality: Development in Sociology 260
13.3.1 Classic Sociology: From Community to Society 260
13.3.2 Community and Theory in the Early Twentieth Century 263
13.4 The Post WWII Division in Community Sociology 264
13.5 Reintegrating the Material and Ideal Space and Place
13.6 Conclusion: Community as Theoretical Linkage in the Twenty-First Century 272
References 272
14: Organizations as Sites and Drivers of Social Action 276
14.1 Introduction 276
14.1.1 Sites and Drivers 276
14.1.2 Verbs and Nouns 277
14.2 Organizations as Equalizers and Stratifiers 279
14.2.1 Organizations as Sites of Inequality 280
14.2.2 Organizations as Drivers of Inequality 281
14.3 Organizations as Standardizers and Monuments 281
14.3.1 Organizations as Sites of Persistence 282
14.3.2 Organizations as Drivers of Persistence 284
14.4 Organizations as Movers and Shakers 285
14.4.1 Organizations as Sites of Change 286
14.4.2 Organizations as Drivers of Change 287
14.5 Organizations as Networks and Wirings 288
14.5.1 Organizations as Sites of Social Relations 288
14.5.2 Organizations as Drivers and Constituents of Networks 290
14.6 Implications 291
14.6.1 Organizations Reflect and Remake Society 291
14.6.2 Organizational Dynamics at Multiple Levels of Analysis 292
14.6.3 Conclusion 293
References 294
15: Small Groups: Reflections of and Building Blocks for Social Structure 299
15.1 Introduction 299
15.2 Small Groups as Self-­Organizing, Emergent Structure 300
15.3 Status 302
15.3.1 Overcoming Disadvantaging Status Beliefs 303
15.3.2 Status Construction Theory 304
15.3.3 Further Developments in Status Research 304
15.4 Power 304
15.4.1 Dependence and Power 305
15.4.2 The Experience of Power 307
15.4.3 Power and Other Dimensions of Small Group Interaction 307
15.5 Social Norms and Influence 308
15.5.1 How Do Social Norms Arise? 309
15.5.2 The “Dark Side” of Social Norms 310
15.6 Identity 311
15.6.1 Identity Theory 311
15.6.2 Social Identity, Realistic Group Conflict, and Group Position 313
15.6.3 Optimal Distinctiveness 314
15.7 Group Culture 315
15.7.1 Learning and Creating Culture 315
15.7.2 Group Culture Shapes Individual Action 316
15.7.3 Culture and Group Boundaries 317
15.8 Conclusion 317
References 320
16: The Theories of Status Characteristics and Expectation States 327
16.1 Overview and Background 327
16.2 Performance Expectations and Behavior 329
16.2.1 Interaction Regularities 329
16.2.2 Abstract Conception of Interaction 330
16.2.3 Building a General Theory 331
16.2.4 Explaining the Interaction Regularities 332
16.3 Status Characteristics and Expectations States 332
16.3.1 Defined Terms 333
16.3.2 Theoretical Propositions 334
16.4 Some Instances of Status Generalization 335
16.4.1 Juries and Sports Teams 335
16.4.2 Using the Theory 337
16.4.3 Status or Dominance? 337
16.4.4 Complexity and Simplification 338
16.5 Two Prominent Status Characteristics 339
16.5.1 Beauty 339
16.5.2 Motherhood and Fatherhood 340
16.6 Status Interventions 340
16.6.1 Interaction in Schools 340
16.6.2 Using Assumptions 3 and 4 341
16.6.3 Task Definition 341
16.7 Theoretical Extensions 342
16.7.1 Creating Status Characteristics 342
16.7.1.1 The Theory of Status Construction 342
16.7.1.2 The Theory of Spread of Status Value 343
16.7.2 Other Extensions, Variants, and Elaborations 343
16.7.2.1 Double Standards 343
16.7.2.2 Race and Interaction 344
16.7.3 Emotions, Sentiments, and Status Processes 344
16.7.4 Creating Legitimate Authority Structures 345
16.8 Summary 346
References 346
17: The Self 349
17.1 Introduction 349
17.2 Conceptualizing the Self 350
17.2.1 The Early Thinkers 350
17.2.2 Contemporary Thinkers 351
17.2.3 Self as Cognitive and Emotional 352
17.2.4 Self and Social Structure 353
17.3 Self in Interaction 354
17.3.1 Role-Taking 354
17.3.2 Self-Presentation 356
17.3.3 Identity Verification 357
17.4 Self in Groups and Social Categories 359
17.4.1 Gender 360
17.4.2 Race 361
17.4.3 Social Class 362
17.5 Self in Society and Cross-Culturally 363
17.5.1 Self in Society 363
17.5.2 Self Cross-Culturally 364
17.5.3 Morals and Values Cross-Culturally 366
17.6 Future Micro, Meso and Macro Directions 367
References 368
Part IV: Constraints on Experience 372
18: Microsociologies: Social Exchange, Trust, Justice, and Legitimacy 373
18.1 Introduction 373
18.2 Social Exchange Theory 375
18.2.1 Elements of Social Exchange 375
18.2.2 The Exchange Process 376
18.2.3 General Assumptions and Propositions of Social Exchange 377
18.2.4 Recent Research on Social Exchange 377
18.3 Theories on Trust 378
18.3.1 Ultimate Causal Theories of Trust 378
18.3.2 Ontogenetic Theories of Trust 379
18.3.3 Proximate Causal Theories of Trust 379
18.3.4 Recent Research on Trust 380
18.4 Justice Theories 380
18.4.1 The Elements of Justice 380
18.4.2 Distributive Justice and Procedural Justice 382
18.4.3 Recent Research on Justice 382
18.5 Legitimacy Theory 383
18.5.1 The Elements of Legitimacy 383
18.5.2 Recent Research on Legitimacy 384
18.6 Interrelations Among Social Exchange, Trust, Justice, and Legitimacy 384
18.7 Conclusion 386
References 386
19: Ethnomethodology and Social Phenomenology 391
19.1 Introduction 391
19.2 Phenomenology: Origins of Social Phenomenology and Ethnomethodology 392
19.2.1 Social Phenomenology 394
19.3 Garfinkel and the Development of Ethnomethodology 395
19.3.1 Other Classic Ethnomethodological Investigations 399
19.4 The Evolution of Ethnomethodology (Post-1967) 400
19.4.1 Controversy and Clarification 401
19.4.2 Ethnomethodology and Non-cognitivism 402
19.4.3 Ethnomethodological Studies of Work 403
19.4.4 Natural Language in Interaction: Conversation Analysis 404
19.5 Current and Future Directions 405
19.5.1 Social Praxis 405
19.5.1.1 Culture 405
19.5.1.2 Morality 407
19.5.2 Embodied Action 407
19.5.3 Acting Alone (and with Objects) 409
19.5.4 Mapping the Interaction Order 409
19.6 Concluding Remarks 410
References 411
20: Theory in Sociology of Emotions 415
20.1 Introduction 415
20.2 Dramaturgy and Culture 416
20.2.1 Erving Goffman’s Dramaturgy 416
20.2.2 Arlie Hochschild’s Emotion Management 417
20.2.2.1 Advances in Emotion Management Theory: The Intersection of Race and Gender 418
20.2.2.2 Advances in Emotion Management Theory: Interpersonal Emotion Management 420
20.2.3 Peggy Thoits’ Emotional Deviance 420
20.2.4 Candace Clark’s Theory of Sympathy Margins 422
20.3 Symbolic Interactionism and Identity 424
20.3.1 Cooley and Mead 424
20.3.2 Identity Theory 425
20.3.2.1 Sheldon Stryker’s Identity Theory 425
20.3.2.2 Burke’s Identity Control Theory 425
20.3.3 Heise’s Affect Control Theory 426
20.4 Group Processes: Social Exchange, Status, Legitimacy, and Justice 429
20.4.1 Kemper’s Social Interactional Theory of Emotion 429
20.4.2 Expectation States Theories 429
20.4.2.1 Joseph Berger’s Affect Expectation Theory 429
20.4.2.2 Cecelia Ridgeway’s Theory of Socioemotional Behavior and Status 430
20.4.3 Edward Lawler’s Affect Theory of Social Exchange 431
20.4.4 Justice and Equity Theory 432
20.4.4.1 Justice Theory 432
20.4.4.2 Equity Theory 432
20.4.5 Ritual Theories 433
20.4.5.1 Interaction Ritual Chains and Emotional Energy 433
20.5 Avenues for Future Research and Concluding Thoughts 434
References 435
21: Sociology as the Study of Morality 438
21.1 Introduction 438
21.2 Sociological Definitions of Morality 439
21.3 Social Psychological Aspects of Morality 440
21.3.1 Moral Emotions 440
21.3.2 Reputational Maintenance 442
21.3.3 The Moral Identity 443
21.4 Structure and Culture 445
21.4.1 Capitalism 445
21.4.2 Religion 446
21.4.3 Values 447
21.5 Contemporary Debates in the Field 451
21.5.1 Structure Versus Culture 451
21.5.2 Cognition and Culture as Dual Processes 451
21.5.3 The Ontology of Morality 452
21.6 A Proposed Theoretical Unification 453
21.6.1 Applying the Principles of Perceptual Overlap: The Example of Reputational Maintenance 455
References 455
22: Forgetting to Remember: The Present Neglect and Future Prospects of Collective Memory in Sociological Theory 460
22.1 The Classical Roots of Collective Memory 460
22.2 Recovering “Collective Memory” 462
22.2.1 The Malleability of Memory 463
22.2.2 New Directions 465
22.3 Memory, Melancholy, and Modernity 466
22.3.1 Collective Identity in a Melancholic Age 466
22.3.2 Memory and the Modern 467
22.3.2.1 The Post-Heroic Era 468
22.3.2.2 The Politics of Regret 468
22.3.2.3 Cultural Trauma 469
22.3.2.4 Cosmopolitan Memory 471
22.4 Memory and Culture, Memory as Culture 471
22.4.1 Cultural Claims in the Sociology of Memory 472
22.4.2 Cultural Memory 472
22.5 The Future Prospects of Collective Memory 474
References 475
23: Intersectionality 479
23.1 Introduction 479
23.2 Intersectionality, Inequality, and the Black Feminist Tradition 481
23.2.1 Black Women, Enslavement, and Theory 481
23.2.2 Intersectionality and Feminist Fissures from Suffrage to Jim Crow 482
23.2.3 Movement Politics and the Emergence of Modern Black Feminist Thought 483
23.3 Classical Black Sociology and Intersectional Thought 484
23.4 Black Feminist Organizing and Modern Black Feminism 487
23.4.1 Black Feminist Theorizing on the Margins of Movements 487
23.4.2 Theorizing Sexual Violence 489
23.4.3 From Parallels to Intersections 490
23.5 Black Feminist Theory and the Expansion of Intersectionality 491
23.6 Sociology and the Science of Intersectionality 493
23.6.1 Black Feminist Thought and the Institutionalization of Intersectionality 493
23.6.2 The Rise of Intersectionality Research in Sociology 494
23.6.3 Intersectionality’s Methodological and Epistemological Complexities 496
23.7 Black Feminist Theorizing and the Legacy of Intersectionality 497
References 498
Part V: Modes of Change 502
24: Social Evolution 503
24.1 Introduction 503
24.2 Fundamental Issues in Conceptualizing Evolution 504
24.3 Evolutionary Sociological Theory Before the Second Darwinian Revolution 507
24.3.1 Evolutionary Thought in Classical Sociological Theory 508
24.3.2 Evolutionary Thought in Sociological Theory Before 1975 510
24.4 Evolutionary Sociological Theory After the Second Darwinian Revolution 511
24.4.1 The Rise and Influence of Sociobiology 511
24.4.2 The Rise and Influence of Evolutionary Psychology 514
24.4.3 Evolutionary Sociology 516
24.4.3.1 Sociocultural Evolution 516
24.4.3.2 The Adapted Mind 518
24.4.3.3 Neurosocial Evolution 520
24.4.3.4 Cross-Species Analyses 521
24.5 Conclusion: A Future for Evolutionary Theory in Sociology 522
References 524
25: Reimagining Collective Behavior 527
25.1 Introduction 527
25.2 Defining Collective Behavior 528
25.3 Collective Behavior Theory 529
25.3.1 Transformation 529
25.3.2 Predisposition and Deprivation 530
25.3.3 Emergent Norms 531
25.3.4 Life Course 532
25.3.5 Repression 534
25.3.6 Structure 535
25.3.7 Testing the Myths 536
25.4 Collective Behavior Theory Redux 537
25.4.1 Dual Process 537
25.4.2 Contagion 539
25.4.3 Rationality and Emotionality 540
25.5 Future Directions 540
25.5.1 Re-centering the Body 540
25.5.2 Space and Time 541
25.5.3 Motivation 541
25.6 Conclusion 542
References 542
26: Theorizing Social Movements 547
26.1 The Importance of and Warrants for Social Movement Theory 547
26.2 Theorizing the Emergence of Social Movements 549
26.2.1 Social Strain and Breakdown 549
26.2.2 Resource Mobilization 550
26.2.3 Political Process and Opportunity Theory 550
26.2.4 Advancing Theories of Emergence 550
26.2.4.1 Revitalizing Theories of Strain and Breakdown 551
26.2.4.2 Refining Political Opportunity 551
26.2.4.3 The Role of Emotions 552
26.2.4.4 Networks 552
26.2.4.5 Ecological Factors 552
26.2.4.6 Culture and Identity 553
26.2.5 Challenges to Understanding Emergence 553
26.3 Theorizing Movements’ Dynamics 554
26.3.1 Revolutionary Versus Reform-­Oriented Movements 554
26.3.2 Strategies and Tactics 554
26.3.3 Cultural and Discursive Dynamics 556
26.3.4 Organizational Forms 556
26.3.5 Movement Diffusion and Spillover 558
26.4 Theorizing Movement’s Outcomes and Consequences 558
26.4.1 Assessing Movement Success 558
26.4.2 Movement’s Unintended Consequences 558
26.4.3 Clarifying Movement Outcomes 559
26.4.4 Cultural and Biographical Outcomes 560
26.5 Developing Theory 560
26.5.1 Collective Behavior and Social Psychology 561
26.5.2 Analyzing Movements Within Their Fields of Contention 561
26.5.3 Attending to Neglected Movement Types 562
26.5.4 Changes in Activists’ Tools 563
References 563
Index 570