Energy Performance of Buildings (eBook)

Dr. Mat Santamouris is Professor of Energy Physics at the University of Athens and The Cyprus Institute. He has served as visiting professor at the Metropolitan University of London, Tokyo Polytechnic University, National University of Singapore, and Bolzano University. He served as President of the National Center of Renewable Energies and Savings from 2010-2012. He is Editor in Chief of the Journal of Building Environmental Research, Editor of the Energy and Building Journal, Associate Editor of the Solar Energy Journal, Consulting Editor of the Journal of Sustainable Energy, Member of the Editorial Advisory Board of the Journal of Energy Conversion and Management and member of the Editorial Board of eight additional journals. He has been guest editor of twenty special issues of esteemed scientific journals, coordinator of many major international research programs like PASCOOL, OFFICE, POLISTUDIES, AIOLOS, BUILT, RESET, INTERSET, COOL ROOFS, etc. and consultant to many international and national energy institutions. In addition, he has performed as external examiner at eight international universities, referee for 72 international peer reviewed scientific journals and reviewer of  research projects in the European Commission, USA, UK, Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Singapore, Sweden, Luxembourg, Ireland, Estonia, Slovenia, Qatar, Cyprus, etc. He is author of over 200 scientific papers published in peer review international scientific journals, as well as editor or author of 12 books on topics related to heat islands, solar energy and energy conservation in buildings.Dr. Vitor Manuel da Silva Leal is Assistant Professor at the Department of Mechanical Engineering at the University of Porto, managing the MIT Portugal Program in Sustainable Energy Systems. He teaches courses in Energy Planning, Energy in Buildings, Demand-side Management and Heat Transfer.Dr. Sofia-Natalia Boemi is conducting post-doctorate research in environmental and energy management of buildings at the University of Porto, Portugal, having recently completed her PhD at University of Ioannina, Greece.

Preface 5
Contents 7
1 The Built Environment and Its Policies 10
Abstract 10
1.1 Buildings Throughout Time 10
1.2 Energy in Buildings: From Sufficiency to Efficiency 12
1.3 Requirements for Future Buildings 14
1.4 Sustainable Buildings 16
1.5 The Built Environment and Its Policies: the Case of the Mediterranean Basin 22
Part I Challenges and Priorities for a Sustainable Built Environment 25
2 Climatic Change in the Built Environment in Temperate Climates with Emphasis on the Mediterranean Area 26
Abstract 26
2.1 Introduction 26
2.2 The Multi-Fold Relationship Between Cities and Climate Change 27
2.3 Urbanization in Europe 29
2.4 Climate Change in Europe 30
2.5 Climate in the Mediterranean Area 31
2.6 Climate Change in the Mediterranean Area 32
2.7 Impacts of Climate Change on Cities 35
2.8 Conclusion 39
References 39
3 The Role of Buildings in Energy Systems 44
Abstract 44
3.1 Sustainability and Construction Activity 45
3.2 Energy Consumption in Buildings 47
3.2.1 Overall Energy Consumption in the Building Sector 47
3.2.2 Energy Consumption Per Fuel Type and Renewable Energy Sources (RES) 49
3.3 Means of Reducing Energy Consumption 50
3.3.1 Energy Efficiency 50
3.4 Embodied Energy of Structural Materials and Components 53
3.5 Assessment Methods 56
3.5.1 Introduction 56
3.5.2 Environmental Assessment of Structural Products and Processes 61
3.5.3 Environmental Assessment Methods for Buildings and Construction Works 62
3.5.3.1 BREEAM (BRE Environmental Assessment Method) 63
3.5.3.2 SBTOOL (Sustainable Buildings Tool) 64
3.5.3.3 Green Globes 64
3.5.3.4 LEED® (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) 65
3.5.3.5 CASBEE (Comprehensive Assessment System for Building Environmental Efficiency) 66
3.6 Discussion 66
References 68
4 Challenges and Priorities for a Sustainable Built Environment in Southern Europe—The Impact of Energy Efficiency Measures and Renewable Energies on Employment 70
Abstract 70
4.1 Introduction 70
4.2 The Built Environment—Defining the Challenges and Priorities in Southern Europe 72
4.2.1 Fighting Economic and Social Stratification Discrimination Through Energy Investment 74
4.3 Conclusions 79
References 83
5 Indicators for Buildings’ Energy Performance 85
Abstract 85
5.1 Introduction 85
5.1.1 Background 87
5.1.1.1 Buildings’ Energy Analysis 87
5.1.2 European Landscape 88
5.2 The Resulting Taxonomy 90
5.3 Decision-Making Framework 93
5.4 Findings 94
5.5 Discussion 96
References 97
6 Life Cycle Versus Carbon Footprint Analysis for Construction Materials 100
Abstract 100
6.1 Introduction 100
6.2 Methodological Approach 102
6.3 Results and Discussion 105
6.4 Conclusions 108
References 109
7 Economic Experiments Used for the Evaluation of Building Users’ Energy-Saving Behavior 112
Abstract 112
7.1 Introduction 113
7.2 Literature Review 114
7.3 Experimental Design 116
7.4 Results 119
7.5 Conclusions 124
7.6 Further Investigations 125
References 126
8 Technologies and Socio-economic Strategies to nZEB in the Building Stock of the Mediterranean Area 127
Abstract 127
8.1 Towards Nearly Zero Energy Urban Settings in the Mediterranean Climate 128
8.1.1 State of the Art and Crucial Issues in the Urban Environment of the Mediterranean Areas. A Case Study of the Athens Metropolitan Area (AMA) 128
8.1.2 Policy Background and Zero Energy Case Studies 130
8.1.3 Low Carbon Communities and Grass-Roots Initiatives in the Urban Environment 131
8.2 Towards “Nearly Zero Energy” and Socio-oriented Urban Settings in the Mediterranean Climate 132
8.3 Energy Retrofitting Scenarios of Existing Buildings to Achieve nZEBs: The Case Study of the Peristeri Workers’ Houses’ Urban Compound 134
8.3.1 Energy Performance Evaluation in the Buildings as Built 138
8.3.2 Energy Retrofitting Scenarios of Existing Buildings in the Peristeri Urban Compound 155
8.3.3 Cost-Benefit Analysis 155
8.3.4 First Conclusions on the Peristeri Urban Compound and Further Design Scenarios 156
8.3.5 Energy and Cost Benefits of Volumetric Addition in Energy Retrofitting Actions 156
8.3.6 Low Versus High Transformation Retrofitting Options Towards Near Zero Energy in Existing Buildings 159
8.4 Conclusions 161
References 164
Part II The Built Environment 168
9 Households: Trends and Perspectives 169
Abstract 169
9.1 Introduction 169
9.2 Analysis of Data in the Crisis Period 170
9.2.1 Household Energy Consumption 170
9.2.2 Population Change 174
9.2.3 Building Stock 175
9.2.4 Greenhouse Gas Emissions 179
9.2.5 Discussion of Data 180
9.3 Housing and Living Quality 184
9.3.1 Overcrowding Rate 184
9.3.2 Severe Housing Deprivation Rate 185
9.3.3 Housing Cost Overburden Rate 190
9.4 Energy Poverty 190
9.4.1 Inability to Keep Homes Adequately Warm 192
9.4.2 People Living in Dwellings with Poor Conditions 192
9.4.3 Difficulties Paying the Bills 197
9.4.4 Population Living in Uncomfortable Dwellings 197
9.5 Conclusions 201
References 203
10 Office BuildingsCommercial Buildings: Trends and Perspectives 205
Abstract 205
10.1 Introduction 205
10.2 The Zero Energy Buildings’ Perspectives in the Mediterranean Region 206
10.3 Office Buildings as ZEB in the Mediterranean Region 208
10.3.1 Office Building in Crete, Greece 209
10.3.2 Laboratory Building in Cyprus 210
10.4 Conclusions and Future Prospects 216
References 217
11 Energy Efficiency in Hospitals: Historical Development, Trends and Perspectives 219
Abstract 219
11.1 Introduction: On the Evolution of Hospital Buildings 219
11.2 On the Use of Energy in Hospitals 221
11.3 Thermal Comfort, Indoor Air Quality, and Hygiene 226
11.4 Improving Energy Efficiency and Reducing Energy Costs: Energy Optimization 227
11.4.1 Monitoring of Energy Efficiency 230
11.4.2 Analysis of Energy Consumption 230
11.4.3 Energy Optimization 230
11.5 Conclusions 233
References 234
12 The Hotel Industry: Current Situation and Its Steps Beyond Sustainability 236
Abstract 236
12.1 Introduction 236
12.2 An Overview of Energy Performance in Hotels 237
12.2.1 Tourism in Countries with Temperate Climates 239
12.2.2 Basic Figures for the Greek Sector 239
12.3 Features of the Hotel Industry in Countries with Temperate Climates 241
12.4 Beyond Energy: Hotels and Sustainability 246
12.5 Conclusions 247
References 248
13 Schools: Trends and Perspectives 252
Abstract 252
13.1 Introduction 252
13.2 Methodology 254
13.3 Schools’ Building Stock Data 255
13.4 Pilot Schools’ Comfort and Energy Performance Investigation 259
13.4.1 Indoor Environmental Conditions 260
13.4.1.1 Studies Comparing Thermal Comfort and Energy Efficiency 261
13.5 Field Measurements of Climatic Parameters in a Typical School Building 263
13.6 Energy Simulations and Upgrade Scenarios of a Typical School 265
13.7 Conclusions 267
References 268
Part III Building’s Design and Systems 270
14 New Challenges in Covering Buildings’ Thermal Load 271
Abstract 271
14.1 Introduction 271
14.1.1 Defining Building Energy Supply Technologies 273
14.1.2 Building Energy Supply Technologies in Temperate Climates 275
14.1.3 Building Energy Systems in Retrofitting 275
14.2 Shifting the Paradigm 276
14.2.1 The Zero Energy Building Agenda and the Regulatory Environment 276
14.2.2 The Smart Decarbonized Grid Landscape and the Connected Building 278
14.2.3 Thermal Comfort and Energy Supply 279
14.3 Energy Technologies for Building Supply 281
14.3.1 The Heat-Power Nexus (Interdependency of Electrical and Thermal Energy in the Built Environment) 282
14.3.2 Emerging Building Energy Systems 284
14.3.2.1 Microgeneration (or the Distributed Generation Narrative) 284
14.3.2.2 Heat Pumps 285
14.3.2.3 Solar Thermal Collectors 285
14.3.2.4 Energy Storage (Thermal) 286
14.3.3 Building Energy Management Systems 288
14.4 Envisioning the Building of the Future (Is the All-Electric Building the Future?) 289
References 289
15 Energy Technologies for Building Supply Systems: MCHP 291
Abstract 291
15.1 Introduction 291
15.2 Prime Mover Technologies and Market Survey 296
15.2.1 Reciprocating Internal Combustion Engines (ICE) 297
15.2.2 Reciprocating External Combustion Stirling Engines (SE) 300
15.2.3 Fuel Cells (FC) 302
15.2.4 Gas and Steam Micro-turbines (MT) 303
15.2.5 Photovoltaic Thermal (PVT) Generators 304
15.3 Operating Schemes 305
15.4 Regulatory Framework 310
15.4.1 Micro-cogeneration Testing Procedures 311
15.4.2 State of the Art: Experimental Results and Simulation Tools 312
15.5 ConclusionsDiscussion 314
References 315
16 The State of the Art for Technologies Used to Decrease Demand in Buildings: Thermal Energy Storage 319
Abstract 319
16.1 Introduction 319
16.2 Materials Used for TES in Buildings 320
16.2.1 Sensible Heat 321
16.2.2 Latent Heat 322
16.2.3 Thermochemical Reactions 325
16.3 Passive Technologies 326
16.3.1 Introduction 326
16.3.2 Sensible Passive Systems 326
16.3.2.1 Integration in Building Components 326
16.3.3 Latent Passive Systems 329
16.3.3.1 Integration in the Building 329
16.3.3.2 Environmental Impact 332
16.4 Active Systems 332
16.4.1 Introduction 332
16.4.2 Free-Cooling Systems 332
16.4.3 Building Integrated Active Systems 333
16.4.3.1 Integration of the TES Into the Core of the Building 334
16.4.3.2 Integration of the TES in External Façades 336
16.4.3.3 Integration of the TES in Suspended Ceilings and Ventilation Systems 337
16.4.3.4 Integration of the TES in the PV System 338
16.4.3.5 Integration of the TES in Water Tanks 338
16.4.4 Use of TES in Heat Pumps 339
16.5 Conclusions 341
References 342
17 Solar Thermal Systems 349
Abstract 349
17.1 Introduction 349
17.1.1 Solar Energy Collectors 350
17.1.1.1 Solar Water Heating Collectors 351
17.1.1.2 Flat-Plate Collector 351
17.1.1.3 Heat Pipe Evacuated Tube Collector 353
17.1.1.4 Water-in-Glass Evacuated Tube Collector 353
17.1.2 Solar Air Heating Collectors 354
17.1.2.1 Unglazed Solar Air Heating Collector 354
17.1.2.2 Glazed Solar Air Heating Collector 355
17.1.3 Solar Water Heating Systems 357
17.1.4 Forced Circulation SWHS 359
17.1.5 Thermosyphon SWHS 360
17.2 Solar Thermal Cooling Systems 361
17.2.1 Solar Absorption Cooling System 362
17.2.2 Solar Adsorption Cooling System 364
17.2.3 Solar Desiccant Cooling Systems 365
17.2.4 Solar Ejector Cooling System 365
17.2.5 Advantages and Disadvantages 366
17.2.6 Overview of Solar Cooling Systems 366
17.2.7 Solar Cooling System Costs 368
17.3 Solar Air Heating System 369
17.3.1 Solar Absorption Heat Pump System 370
17.4 Building Integrated Solar Thermal Systems 372
17.4.1 Façade Integrations 372
17.4.2 Roof Integrated Systems 373
17.4.3 Balconies and Walls 373
References 373
18 Solar Energy for Building Supply 376
Abstract 376
18.1 Introduction 376
18.2 PV Modules and Cells 377
18.2.1 Electricity Production 377
18.2.2 The Components 378
18.2.3 Dependency of Energy Generated on System Installation 380
18.2.4 Production 381
18.2.5 Integration of Solar Modules in Buildings 381
18.3 ?ypes of PV Cells 381
18.3.1 Types of PV Cells Depending on the Semiconductor Material 382
18.3.2 Types of PV Cells According to the Type of Junction 383
18.3.3 Types of PV Cells According to the Method of Manufacture 384
18.3.4 Types of PV Cells According to the Devices of the System that Utilizes Solar Radiation 384
18.3.5 Semitransparent Modules (Crystalline Glass-Glass Module) 385
18.4 I–V Curve and Losses 386
18.4.1 Characteristic I–V Curve of a PV Cell—Power Curve 386
18.5 Types of Building Integration 388
18.6 Conclusion 396
References 396
19 The State of the Art for Technologies Used to Decrease Demand in Buildings: Thermal Insulation 398
Abstract 398
19.1 Thermal Insulation Materials 398
19.2 Foamed Materials 399
19.3 Fibrous Materials 400
19.4 Construction Solutions 404
19.4.1 Vertical Building Elements 405
19.4.2 Horizontal Building Elements 407
19.5 Conclusions 413
Reference 413
20 Cool Materials 414
Abstract 414
20.1 Introduction 414
20.2 Construction Materials Under Solar Radiation 416
20.2.1 Construction and Building Solutions for Cool Applications 418
20.3 Cool Materials for Building Applications 420
20.3.1 White and Light-Colored Materials 420
20.3.2 Cool Colored Materials 421
20.3.3 Advanced Materials 423
20.4 Cool Materials for Urban Applications 424
20.5 Potentialities of Cool Materials Applications 426
20.5.1 Saving Energy with Cool Roofs 426
20.5.2 Mitigating the Urban Temperatures with Cool Materials 428
20.6 Cool Roofs Case Studies 429
20.6.1 Senior Recreation Building in Rome, Italy 429
20.6.2 OfficeSchool Building in Trapani, Sicily, Italy 430
20.6.3 School Building in Athens, Greece 432
20.6.4 School Building in Heraklion, Crete, Greece 432
Bibliography 433
21 Shading and Daylight Systems 436
Abstract 436
21.1 Introduction 436
21.2 Shading 444
21.3 Daylight Systems 449
21.3.1 Lightshelf 452
21.3.2 Blinds 453
21.3.3 Daylight Transporting Systems 459
21.3.4 Heliostat 462
References 464
22 The State of the Art for Technologies Used to Decrease Demand in Buildings: Electric Lighting 466
Abstract 466
22.1 Energy Consumption by Electric Lighting 466
22.2 Policies and Standards 468
22.3 Energy Performance Factors for Lighting Installations 469
22.4 Maintenance and Life Cycle 472
22.5 Comparison of Technologies 473
22.5.1 Lamps 473
22.5.1.1 LED Replacement Lamps 475
22.5.2 Luminaires 475
22.5.3 LED Luminaires 475
22.5.4 OLED Luminaires 476
22.6 Daylighting Utilization 477
22.7 Lighting Design 477
22.8 Conclusions 480
Reference 480
Part IV The Microclimatic Environment 481
23 Tools and Strategies for Microclimatic Analysis of the Built Environment 482
Abstract 482
23.1 Introduction 482
23.2 Köppen-Geiger Climate Classification 483
23.3 Orientation Analysis 485
23.4 Passive Design Strategies for Mediterranean Climate 486
23.5 Passive Design Strategies for Mediterranean Climate 488
23.6 Climograms—Case Study of Barcelona 489
23.7 Summary of Design Strategies for Mediterranean Cities 492
23.8 Passive Strategies for Winter 494
23.9 Conclusion 494
References 495
24 Microclimatic Improvement 496
Abstract 496
24.1 Introduction 497
24.2 Defining Microclimate 498
24.2.1 Properties of Mediterranean Climate 498
24.2.2 Meso-Scale Conditions 500
24.2.2.1 Topography 500
24.2.2.2 Wind 500
24.2.2.3 Bodies of Water 500
24.2.2.4 Vegetation 500
24.2.2.5 Artificial Elements 501
24.2.3 Main Physical Parameters on the Local Scale 501
24.3 Mediterranean Settlement and Microclimate 503
24.4 Strategies in Microclimatic Improvement 506
24.4.1 Building as Modifier of Microclimate (North America 1910–1948) 506
24.4.2 Sequences of Dampening Spaces (Andalusia 9th–14th Centuries) 508
24.4.3 Collaboration Between Construction and Microclimate (Corse 2011) 510
24.4.4 Social Spaces and Evapotranspiration (Castile 2004) 512
24.4.5 Blurring and Dematerialization (Southern France 1961 and 2003–2007) 513
24.5 Conclusions 517
References 518
25 Modelling and Bioclimatic Interventions in Outdoor Spaces 520
Abstract 520
25.1 Introduction 520
25.2 The Optimum Modelling Tool 522
25.3 Using Computational Fluid Dynamics in the Bioclimatic Design of Open Spaces in Two Greek Cities 523
25.3.1 Bioclimatic Thermal Problem 523
25.3.2 Bioclimatic Interventions 524
25.3.3 Model Verification 524
25.3.4 Comparison of the Mean Maximum Air Temperature 527
25.3.5 Comparison of the Mean Surface Temperatures 529
25.4 Urban Microclimatic Improvement Effects on Building Blocks’ Energy Consumption by the Use of Energy Simulation 531
25.5 The Optimum Modeling Scheme in Bioclimatic Design 533
25.6 Conclusions 534
References 535
Index 538