Traumatic Stress and Long-Term Recovery (eBook)

Dr. Katie E. Cherry is a Professor of Psychology and the Executive Director of the Life Course and Aging Center at Louisiana State University. Her research expertise is adult development and aging with emphasis on cognition and successful aging. Her research has been funded by the National Institute on Aging and the Louisiana Board of Regents. In 2002, she was awarded the Emogene Pliner Distinguished Professor of Aging Studies professorship for her contributions to the field of adult development and aging.

Preface 5
References 8
Contents 9
Contributors 12
Part I 15
Traumatic Experiences: On Events that Change Lives 15
Chapter-1 16
Traumatic Stress in Overview: Definition, Context, Scope, and Long-Term Outcomes 16
Introduction 16
Traumatic Stress: A Historical Synopsis 18
The Initial Impact: Acute Physiological and Psychological Response to Trauma 19
The Dust Settles: The Individual Aftermath of Trauma 20
Spiraling Distress: Related Disorders and Expressions of Trauma 21
Patterns of Posttraumatic Adjustment over Time 22
Long-Term Correlates of Trauma 24
Impact on Physical Health and Morbidity 24
Untangling the Web: Trauma Types, Risk Factors, and Mechanisms 25
The Nature of the Trauma 26
The Intrapersonal Context of Trauma 26
The Interpersonal Context 28
Aftershocks: Shared Trauma, Intergenerational Violence, and War 29
Shared and Secondary Trauma 29
Impact on Political Attitudes and War 30
Summary 31
References 31
Chapter-2 38
Natural Disasters: On Wildfires and Long-Term Recovery of Community-Residing Adults 38
Introduction 38
Literature Review 39
San Diego County Wildfires 40
The Disaster 40
Participants 41
Materials and Procedure 42
Results 43
Conclusions 47
Implications 47
References 48
Chapter-3 50
On Tornados: Storm Exposure, Coping Styles, and Resilience 50
Introduction 50
Resilience 51
Coping Styles 52
Resilience and Coping After Disaster 54
Joplin Impact Project 56
Overview of Dependent Measures 57
Results 59
Conclusion and Future Directions 63
References 65
Chapter-4 69
When Multiple Disasters Strike: Louisiana Fishers in the Aftermath of Hurricanes and the British Petroleum Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill 69
Introduction 69
Overview of Literature 70
The 1980 North Sea Oil Rig Disaster 70
The 1989 Exxon Valdez Oil Spill 70
Comparisons Between the Exxon Valdez and BP Deepwater Horizon Oil Spills 71
The 2010 BP Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill 71
Cumulative Adversity and the “Pileup” of Demands 72
Method 74
Participants 74
Procedure, Coding, and Analyses 74
Findings 74
Theme 1: Troubled Present, Uncertain Future 75
Theme 2: Environmental Devastation 76
Theme 3: The “Pileup” Effect after a Decade of Disasters 78
Conclusion 80
References 81
Chapter-5 83
The Great East Japan Earthquake: Tsunami and Nuclear Disaster 83
Introduction 83
Mental Health Effects After the Great East Japan Earthquake and Tsunami 84
Review of Three Major Nuclear Plant Accidents 85
Chernobyl Accident 85
Three Mile Island Accident 89
Tokaimura Accident 90
Psychosocial Consequences of Fukushima Disaster 92
Conclusion and Future Directions 97
References 99
Chapter-6 103
Posttraumatic Stress in the Aftermath of Mass Shootings 103
Introduction 103
Overview of Studies 104
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder 104
Issues in Interpretation 114
Predictors of Adverse Mental Health Outcomes 114
Discussion 118
References 120
Chapter-7 124
When Man Harms Man: The Interpersonal Ramifications of War Captivity 124
Introduction 124
Chapter Overview 125
Traumatic Stressors of War and War Captivity 126
The Stressors of Combat 126
In the Captors’ Dungeons: The Dreadful Experience of War Captivity 127
Questions Deriving from the Interpersonal Dimensions of War Captivity 129
(Incarcerated) Johnny Comes Home: What Comes After War Captivity 130
The Longitudinal Study of Ex-POW’s in Israel 130
War Captivity as an Attachment Injury 131
Loneliness Following Combat and Captivity: Estrangement, Alienation, and Experiential Isolation 134
The Multiple Contexts of Interpersonal Deficit: Marital, Social, and National 136
Concluding Remarks: Looking Back Looking Forward 138
References 140
Chapter-8 144
Does Extreme Trauma Transfer? The Case of Three Generations of the Holocaust 144
Introduction 144
Attachment, Attachment Security/Insecurity, and Transmission of Trauma 145
Our Holocaust Project Across Three Generations 147
Method 149
First Phase 149
Second Phase 151
Meta-Analyses 151
“Under the Skin” Effects 152
Posttraumatic Growth 154
Conclusion and Future Directions 155
References 157
Part II 160
Consequences of Trauma Exposure 160
Chapter-9 161
Physiological Consequences: Early Hardship and Health Across the Life Span 161
Introduction 161
Overview and Definitions 162
Links to Physiological Health 163
The Hypothalamic–Pituitary–Adrenal Axis 163
Immune Functioning 166
Cardiovascular Health 168
Chronic Disease and Disability Prevalence 170
Summary of Physiological Risk 173
Health Risks and Behaviors 173
Cigarette Smoking 173
Alcohol and Other Substance Use/Abuse 174
Risky Sexual Behaviors 175
Overweight or Obesity 175
Challenges and Conclusions 177
Measurement Challenges 177
The Influence of Individual Differences 178
Future Directions 179
References 180
Chapter-10 187
Severe Stress and Anxiety Disorders in Adolescence: The Long-Term Effects of Disasters 187
Introduction 187
Ecological Needs-Based Perspective 188
Ontogenic Influences 189
Microsystem Influences 195
Mesosystem Influences 197
Exosystem Influences 198
Macrosystem Influences 198
Conclusions 199
References 200
Chapter-11 205
Psychosocial Consequences: Appraisal, Adaptation, and Bereavement After Trauma 205
Introduction 205
Cognitive and Resource Models of Traumatic Stress 206
Social Cognitive Theory 208
Coping Self-Efficacy 209
Coping Self-Efficacy in Various Posttrauma Environments 210
Natural Disaster 210
Intimate Partner Violence 212
Military Combat and Reintegration 212
Terrorist Attack 213
Motor Vehicle Accident 214
Bereavement 214
Health Outcomes 215
Conclusion and Future Directions 216
References 216
Chapter-12 220
When Neighborhoods Are Destroyed by Disaster: Relocate or Return and Rebuild? 220
Introduction 220
Conceptual Framework and Literature 221
Nested Ecologies 221
Disrupted Ecologies and Psychosocial Consequences 222
Method 223
Participants and Procedure 223
Analysis and Coding 224
Findings 225
Theme 1: There’s No Going Back: The “Old Normal” Is Gone Forever 225
Theme 2: “You Don’t Understand Unless You Were There” 228
Subtheme 1: Witnesses to Tragedy: Voices of Professionals Who Were There Serving the Public 231
Subtheme 2: The Special Case of Rebuilding Ecologies: On Hardships, Perceived Neglect, and Volunteer Efforts 233
Conclusions and Implications 236
References 237
Chapter-13 239
Loss, Chaos, Survival, and Despair: The Storm after the Storms 239
Introduction 239
Method 241
Participants and Interview Procedure 241
Findings 241
Theme 1: “I Don’t Want to Lose Another Friend:” A Loss of More than Material Possessions 242
Theme 2: “No Coping, Just Surviving:” Chaos and the Crushing Burden of Survival 244
Theme 3: “[Katrina] made me a Weaker Person:” Anguish and Despair after the Storms 247
Conclusion and Future Directions 250
References 252
Chapter-14 254
Families and Faith-based Communities After a Disaster: Successes and Failures in the Wakes of Hurricanes Katrina and Rita 254
Introduction 254
A Brief Overview of Research Findings on Faith Community 255
Method 256
Findings 256
Theme 1: The Hunger for Faith Community 257
Theme 2: “My Church Family Kept Me Going” 261
Theme 3: “I Felt Like My Church Abandoned Me” 265
Theme 4: Helping Others: “Am I My Brother’s Keeper?” 270
Conclusion 273
References 275
Chapter-15 278
Trauma and Ambiguous Loss: The Lingering Presence of the Physically Absent 278
Introduction 278
Definition of Ambiguous Loss 279
The Difference Between Ambiguous Loss and Death 281
The Difference Between Ambiguous Loss and Posttraumatic Disorder 282
The Difference Between Depression and the Normal Sadness of Grief 282
Cultural Beliefs that Influence Coping with Ambiguous Loss: The Example of 3/11 283
Religious and Secular Beliefs 285
Resilience as the Tolerance for Ambiguity 286
A Story of Resilience in a Miyagi High School 287
Assessment and Interventions: Finding the Resilience to Live Long Term with Ambiguous Loss 289
Individual Effects of Ambiguous Loss 289
Family and Couple Effects of Ambiguous Loss 290
Six Guidelines for Strengthening Resilience in Families of the Missing 290
The Need for Professional Self-Reflection 293
Summary 293
References 294
Part III 297
Healing after Trauma: Resilience and Long-Term Recovery 297
Chapter-16 298
Aging with Trauma Across the Lifetime and Experiencing Trauma in Old Age: Vulnerability and Resilience Intertwined 298
Introduction 298
How Is Trauma Across the Lifetime Manifested in Old Age? 299
Aging Trauma Versus Trauma in Old Age 300
Resilience Versus Vulnerability: Which One Prevails? 303
Mechanisms That Help Older Adults Deal with Trauma 305
Proposing a Unifying Model: The Pursuit of Happiness in a Hostile World 306
Conclusion 308
References 309
Chapter-17 314
Lost Possible Selves and Personality Development 314
Introduction 314
PTG and Personality Development 316
Posttraumatic Growth 316
Adult Personality Development: The Trait Approach 317
An Alternative Approach: Ego Development 319
Narrating the Future: Possible Selves and Ego Development 324
Closing Thoughts: Of Phoenixes and Their Ashes 326
References 327
Chapter-18 331
Younger and Older Coastal Fishers Face Catastrophic Loss after Hurricane Katrina 331
Introduction 331
Historic Overview: Two Fishing Communities, Cultural Heritage, and Hurricanes 332
Method 336
Participants and Procedure 336
Analyses and Coding 336
Findings 337
Theme 1: Materialism and True Colors Revealed: Despicable Deeds and Acts of Grace After the Storm 337
Theme 2—Helping Efforts Across Denominations: “[God] was using His people to help His [other] people.” 340
Theme 3: Historical Ties that Bind: Old Roots Versus New Connections 344
Conclusions and Implications 348
References 351
Chapter-19 353
Trauma, Religion, and Spirituality: Pathways to Healing 353
Introduction 353
The Relationships Among Religion, Spirituality, and Trauma 354
Religious and Spiritual Coping with Trauma 356
Positive Patterns of Religious and Spiritual Coping 358
Negative Patterns of Religious and Spiritual Coping 360
Outcomes of Religious and Spiritual Coping 362
Integrating Religion and Spirituality into the Posttraumatic Recovery Process 364
Conclusion 367
References 367
Chapter-20 372
Faith and Coping: Spiritual Beliefs and Religious Practices After Hurricanes Katrina and Rita 372
Introduction 372
Overview of Coping and Resilience 373
Method 374
Participants and Procedure 374
Analyses 375
Findings 375
Theme 1: “I Couldn’t Have Done It Without My God’s Help:” God as a Personal and Relational Being 376
Theme 2: “God is in Control:” Conceptualizations and Characteristics of God 378
Theme 3: “The Katrina Experience Renewed Your Faith:” Spiritually Framing the Storm 380
Theme 4: “Praying Helped Me Cope:” Prayer in the Immediate Katrina/Rita Aftermath 382
Theme 5: “I Prayed A Lot for Guidance:” God as a Guide in Post-Storm Decision Making 384
Conclusion 386
References 388
Chapter-21 391
Seeing Silver Linings After Catastrophic Loss: Personal Growth, Positive Adaption, and Relationships that Matter 391
Introduction 391
A Brief Overview and Explanation of “Silver Linings” 392
Method 394
Findings 394
Theme 1: Personal Growth and Change in Perspective 395
Subtheme 1: A Change ?in Attitude: “[Katrina] helped me to become a better person” 395
Subtheme 2: Material Possessions Do Not Ultimately Matter: “I don’t need all of that anymore” 396
Theme 2: Appreciation for a New, Positive Social Environment 397
Theme 3: Relationships with Friends and Family are What Matter Most 398
Subtheme 1: The Formation of Lasting Friendships: “I have met some new, wonderful people…” 399
Subtheme 2: The Fundamental Importance of Family Relationships: “My son…became more family-oriented” 400
Conclusion 401
References 403
Chapter-22 405
On Bereavement and Grief: A Therapeutic Approach to Healing 405
Introduction 405
Case Study: An Illustration of Complicated Grief 405
The Syndrome of CG 408
Typical Grief 411
Theoretical Underpinnings of CGT 412
CG Principles and Procedures 414
CGT Outcomes 417
Learning CGT 418
Conclusion 419
References 419
Chapter-23 421
Triumph Over Tragedy: The Healing Power of Forgiveness 421
Introduction 421
Life at Auschwitz 423
Surviving and Defeating Mengele 425
Miriam’s Hardships 426
A Child Coping in Auschwitz 426
Liberation 428
Life Lessons 429
Beginning of the Healing 430
How to Forgive 431
Benefits to Forgiveness 431
Sources 432
Index 433