Manufacturing of Natural Fibre Reinforced Polymer Composites (eBook)

Dedication 6
Preface 8
Contents 10
Chapter 1: The Relationship Between Manufacturing and Design for Manufacturing in Product Development of Natural Fibre Composites 13
1.1 Introduction 14
1.2 The Link Between Design for Manufacturing and Manufacturing 14
1.3 Manufacturing Process of Natural Fibre Composites 15
1.3.1 Pultrusion 15
1.3.2 Filament Winding 16
1.3.3 Hand Lay-Up 17
1.3.4 Resin Transfer Moulding 18
1.3.5 Vacuum Bagging 18
1.3.6 Compression Moulding 19
1.3.7 Injection Moulding 19
1.4 Design for Manufacturing of Natural Fibre Composites 21
1.4.1 Automotive Components 21
1.4.2 Marine Application 22
1.4.3 Household Appliances 22
1.5 Design for Sustainability of Natural Fibre Composites 23
1.5.1 Design for Sustainability Guides (EcoDesign Foundation 2014) Used for Natural Fibre Composite Product 25
1.6 Conclusions 26
References 26
Chapter 2: Introduction to Manufacturing of Natural Fibre-Reinforced Polymer Composites 28
2.1 Introduction 29
2.2 Structures and Properties of Natural Fibres 31
2.2.1 Types and Sources of Natural Fibres 31
2.2.2 Structure of Natural Fibres 31
2.2.3 Properties of Natural Fibres 32
2.3 Different Polymers as the Reinforcing Phase of NRFCs 33
2.3.1 Polyolefins 33
2.3.2 Glassy Polymers 34
2.3.2.1 Polycarbonate 34
2.3.2.2 Polymethyl Methacrylate 34
2.3.2.3 Polystyrene 35
2.3.3 Polyamides 35
2.3.4 Bioplastics 36
2.4 Critical Issues in the Processing of Natural Fibre-­Reinforced Composites 36
2.4.1 Thermal Stability of Natural Fibres 36
2.4.2 Dispersion of Natural Fibres in the Polymer Matrix 39
2.4.3 Hydrophilicity of Natural Fibres 39
2.4.4 Interfacial Adhesion Between Natural Fibre and Polymer Matrix 40
2.5 Different Processing Techniques to Fabricate NFRCs 40
2.5.1 Fabrication of NFRCs by Injection Molding 40
2.5.2 Compression Molding 41
2.5.3 Resin Transfer Molding 41
2.6 Structure and Properties of Various NFRCs 42
2.6.1 Structural Properties 42
2.6.2 Mechanical Properties 42
2.6.2.1 Tensile Properties 43
2.6.2.2 Flexural Properties 43
2.6.2.3 Impact Strength 44
2.6.2.4 Hardness 44
2.6.3 Dynamic Mechanical Properties 45
2.6.4 Thermal Properties 45
2.7 Application of NFRCs 46
2.7.1 Automotive Applications 46
2.7.2 Packaging Applications 48
2.7.3 Bio-Based Electronics 48
2.7.4 Other Applications of NFRCs 49
2.8 Summary and Future Prospects 49
References 50
Chapter 3: Green Composite Manufacturing via Compression Molding and Thermoforming 55
3.1 Green Composites 55
3.1.1 Compression Molding and Thermoforming 56
3.2 Fabrication Process 58
3.2.1 Material Selection 59
3.2.1.1 Material Selection Criteria 59
3.2.1.2 Overview of Raw Materials for Green Composites 60
3.2.2 Preprocessing 60
3.2.2.1 Fibre Preparation 60
3.2.2.2 Drying 61
3.2.2.3 Fibre Pretreatment 62
3.2.2.4 Modification of Biopolymers 62
3.2.3 Semifinished Product Manufacturing 63
3.2.3.1 Compounding Technology 64
3.2.3.2 Fibre Mat Technology 64
3.2.4 Green Composite Fabrication 65
3.2.4.1 Compression Molding 65
3.2.4.2 Thermoforming 67
3.3 Commercial Green Composite Semifinished Products 68
3.4 Summary 69
References 71
Chapter 4: Compaction, Permeability and Flow Simulation for Liquid Composite Moulding of Natural Fibre Composites 74
4.1 Introduction 75
4.1.1 Liquid Composite Moulding 75
4.1.2 Natural Fibre Composites in LCM Processes 77
4.2 Compaction Behaviour of Natural Fibre Reinforcements 79
4.2.1 Introduction 79
4.2.1.1 Compaction Measurement and Modelling 79
4.2.1.2 Key Compaction Mechanisms 81
4.2.2 Through-Thickness Compaction of Natural Fibre Preforms 84
4.2.2.1 Effect of Fibre Type on Single-Cycle Dry Compaction 85
4.2.2.2 Effect of Fabric Architecture 89
4.2.2.3 Effect of Multiple Compaction Cycles 90
4.2.2.4 Wet Compaction 91
4.2.2.5 Effects of Other Parameters 92
4.2.3 Conclusions 93
4.3 Modelling the Mould-Filling Process in LCM of Natural Fibre Composites 94
4.3.1 In-Plane Permeability of Natural Fibre Reinforcements 94
4.3.1.1 Permeability Measurement and Modelling 95
4.3.1.2 Effect of Reinforcement Type 97
4.3.1.3 Permeability Anisotropy 100
4.3.1.4 Saturated and Unsaturated Permeability 101
4.3.1.5 Capillary Effects and Micro-Flow Versus Macro-Flow 101
4.3.2 Flow Modelling of Natural Fibre Composites 102
4.3.2.1 Introduction 102
4.3.2.2 Models Suitable for Natural Fibre Reinforcements 104
4.3.3 Conclusions 105
References 105
Chapter 5: Manufacturing and Processing of Kenaf Fibre-­Reinforced Epoxy Composites via Different Methods 109
5.1 Introduction 110
5.2 Natural Fibre and Kenaf Fibre 111
5.2.1 Kenaf Fibre 112
5.3 Thermoset Polymer 114
5.4 Natural Fibre Composite 114
5.5 Manufacturing Techniques 115
5.5.1 Classification and Applications of Manufacturing Techniques 118
5.5.2 Problems and Challenges 118
5.6 Manufacturing Uncertainty 120
5.6.1 Dry Textiles and Pre-preg Variability 120
5.6.2 Forming/Draping Stages 121
5.6.3 Impregnation/Consolidation 121
5.6.4 Composites Curing Stage 121
5.7 Kenaf Fibre Composite 122
5.7.1 Processing of Kenaf Fibre-Reinforced Composites 123
5.8 Different Fabrication Techniques of Kenaf Polymer Composite 124
5.8.1 Fibre/Thermoplastic Polymer Composite 124
5.8.2 Fibre/Thermosetting Polymer Composite 126
5.9 Conclusion 126
5.10 Future Perspective 127
References 128
Chapter 6: Critical Concerns on Manufacturing Processes of Natural Fibre Reinforced Polymer Composites 133
6.1 Introduction 133
6.2 Biomass Materials 134
6.3 Manufacturing Techniques and Concerns 134
6.3.1 Manufacturing Principles 134
6.3.2 Moulding Processes 137
6.3.2.1 Injection Moulding Process 137
6.3.2.2 Compression Moulding Process 140
6.3.2.3 Hot-Pressing Moulding Process 141
6.3.2.4 Resin Transfer Moulding Process 142
6.4 Conclusion and Future Perspective 144
References 145
Chapter 7: Challenges in Machining of Natural Fibre Composites 147
7.1 Composite Material 147
7.2 Importance of Natural Fibre Composites 148
7.3 Challenges in Preparation of Natural Fibre Composite Materials 148
7.4 Machining of Composites 149
7.4.1 Conventional Machining 149
7.4.1.1 Turning 150
7.4.1.2 Milling 150
7.4.1.3 Grinding 150
7.4.1.4 Drilling 151
7.4.2 Unconventional Machining 151
7.4.2.1 Waterjet Machining 151
7.4.2.2 Ultrasonic Machining 152
7.4.2.3 Laser Machining 152
7.4.2.4 Electrical Discharge Machining 153
7.4.2.5 Electron Beam Machining 153
7.4.2.6 Electrochemical Machining 153
7.5 Research Review on Machining of Natural Fibre Composites 153
7.6 Challenges Observed 155
7.7 Remarks 159
References 159
Chapter 8: Yarn Flax Fibres for Polymer-Coated Sutures and Hand Layup Polymer Composite Laminates 162
8.1 Introduction 163
8.2 Rupture Morphology 164
8.2.1 Structure of Flax Fibre 164
8.2.2 Effects of Moisture 165
8.2.3 Effects of Knot Geometry 166
8.3 Mechanical Properties 167
8.3.1 Stress Versus Strain Curves 167
8.3.2 Stiffness, Fracture Strength, and Fracture Strain 169
8.4 Hand Layup Technique 172
8.4.1 Equipment’s of Hand Layup 173
8.4.2 Raw Materials Used in Hand Layup Method 173
8.4.3 Methodology of Hand Layup 174
8.4.4 Applications 175
8.5 Design Considerations 177
8.5.1 Models 177
8.5.2 Polypropylene Composites 178
8.5.3 Sutures 178
8.5.4 Limitations 179
8.6 Conclusion and Future Perspective 179
References 180
Chapter 9: Effect of Processing Conditions on the Mechanical and Morphological Properties of Composites Reinforced by Natural Fibres 183
9.1 Introduction 184
9.2 Processing of Polymer Composites Based on Short Fibre 185
9.2.1 Compounding 185
9.2.2 Extrusion Condition: Screw Configuration and Temperature 186
9.2.3 Melt Rheology 191
9.3 Composite Manufacturing 195
9.3.1 Extrusion 195
9.3.2 Injection 197
9.3.3 Mechanical Properties: Fibre Orientations 198
9.4 Conclusion and Perspective 200
References 201
Chapter 10: Manufacturing of Long Puchika Grass Fibre Reinforced Polyester Composites: Assessment Under Mechanical and Dielectric Loading 204
10.1 Introduction 204
10.2 Materials, Methods of Manufacturing and Testing 206
10.2.1 Materials 207
10.2.1.1 Puchika Grass Fibre 207
10.2.1.2 Ecmalon 4413 Matrix 207
10.2.2 Methods of Manufacturing 208
10.2.2.1 Pure Splitting Method of Puchika Grass Fibre 208
10.2.2.2 Chemical Processing of Puchika Grass Fibre 208
10.2.2.3 Rolled Hand Lay-Up Method of Manufacturing Composites 209
10.2.3 Testing Procedures 210
10.2.3.1 Fibre Density and Tensile Test 210
10.2.3.2 Composite Test 210
10.3 Results and Discussion 210
10.4 Conclusions and Applications 217
References 219
Chapter 11: Pultrusion Process of Natural Fibre-­Reinforced Polymer Composites 221
11.1 Introduction 221
11.2 Pultrusion Process 222
11.3 Materials Used in the Pultrusion Process 228
11.4 Pultrusion Process of Selected Natural Fibre Composites 229
11.5 Conclusions 232
References 233
Chapter 12: Bio-nanocomposites from Natural Fibre Derivatives: Manufacturing and Properties 236
12.1 Introduction 236
12.1.1 Natural Fibre Technology in Composite Materials 237
12.1.2 Nanotechnology in Composite Materials 238
12.2 General Manufacturing and Fabrication Method of Bio-nanocomposite Materials 240
12.2.1 Powder Injection Molding 240
12.2.2 Micro-Cellular Injection Molding 241
12.2.3 Liquid Composite Molding 241
12.2.4 Electrospun Photon Exchange 242
12.2.5 Spray-Up Method 244
12.3 General Properties of Bio-nanocomposite Materials 244
12.4 Thermoset Bio-nanocomposites: Manufacturing and Properties 245
12.4.1 Epoxy Bio-nanocomposites 246
12.4.2 Polyester Bio-nanocomposites 247
12.4.2.1 Epoxy/Polyester Bio-nanocomposites 249
12.4.3 Polyurethane Bio-nanocomposites 249
12.4.4 Phenolic Bio-nanocomposites 249
12.4.5 Polyvinyl Ester Bio-nanocomposites 250
12.5 Thermoplastic Bio-nanocomposites: Manufacturing and Properties 251
12.5.1 Polypropylene Bio-nanocomposites 251
12.5.2 Polyethylene Bio-nanocomposites 252
12.5.3 Polyvinyl Acetate Bio-nanocomposites 252
12.5.4 Polycaprolactone Bio-nanocomposites 253
12.5.5 Polyvinyl Alcohol Bio-nanocomposites 253
12.6 Elastomer Bio-nanocomposites: Manufacturing and Properties 254
12.6.1 Natural Rubber Latex Bio-nanocomposites 254
12.6.2 Hydrogenated Nitrile Butadiene Rubber Bio-nanocomposites 255
12.7 Biopolymer Bio-nanocomposites 256
12.7.1 Starch Bio-nanocomposites 256
12.8 Potential Applications of Bio-nanocomposites 256
12.8.1 Automobile 256
12.8.2 Food Packaging 257
12.8.3 Structural Applications 257
12.8.4 Tissue Engineering 258
12.9 Conclusion 258
References 258
Chapter 13: The Manufacturing of Natural Fibre-­Reinforced Composites by Resin-Transfer Molding Process 269
13.1 Introduction 269
13.2 Detailed Study of RTM Process 270
13.2.1 Important Components of RTM Process 271
13.3 Components Made by RTM Process 271
13.4 Selection of Important Parameters for RTM Process 272
13.4.1 Thickness 272
13.4.2 Injection Pressure 272
13.4.3 Temperature 272
13.5 Influence of RTM Process on Final Product 273
13.5.1 Compaction Stage 273
13.5.2 Impregnation Phase 274
13.6 RTM Composites: A Past Research 275
13.7 Morphological Study of RTM Composites 287
13.8 Application of RTM Composites 290
13.9 Advantages of RTM Composites 291
13.10 Conclusions 291
References 291
Chapter 14: Manufacturing of Chemically Modified Date Palm Leaf Fibre-Reinforced Polymer Composites 293
14.1 Introduction 293
14.2 Experimental 295
14.3 Preparation of DPL Fibre and Its Chemical Modification 295
14.3.1 DPL Fibre Preparation 295
14.3.2 Chemical Modifications of DPL Fibres 296
14.3.2.1 Alkaline Treatment 296
14.3.2.2 Benzoylation Treatment 296
14.3.2.3 Permanganate Treatment 297
14.3.2.4 Peroxide Treatment 297
14.3.2.5 Maleic Anhydride Treatment 297
14.3.2.6 Acrylic Acid Treatment 298
14.4 Manufacturing of DPL Fibre-Based Biocomposites 298
14.5 Standard Techniques Used for Properties Investigation 302
14.5.1 Instrumentation 302
14.6 Explanations of Evidenced Results 303
14.6.1 FTIR Analysis of Polymer Composites 303
14.6.2 XRD Analysis of Polymer Composites 304
14.6.3 Morphological Analysis Polymer Composites 305
14.7 Properties of Polymer Composites 306
14.8 Conclusion 309
14.9 Future Prospective 309
References 310
Chapter 15: Manufacturing of Coir Fibre-Reinforced Polymer Composites by Hot Compression Technique 311
15.1 Introduction 312
15.2 Experimental Procedure 312
15.2.1 Materials 312
15.2.2 Coir Fibre Extraction 313
15.2.3 Chemical Treatment of Coir Fibre 314
15.2.4 Composite Manufacturing 314
15.2.4.1 Hot Compression Moulding Technique 314
15.2.4.2 Advantages 315
15.2.4.3 Applications 316
15.2.4.4 Improvement or Advancement 317
15.2.4.5 Fabrication 317
15.2.5 Microstructural Analysis of Composites 319
15.2.6 Mechanical Testing of Composites 319
15.2.6.1 Tensile Test 319
15.2.6.2 Flexural Test 321
15.2.6.3 Impact Test 321
15.2.6.4 Water Absorption Test 322
15.2.6.5 Hardness Test 322
15.3 Properties of Manufactured Composites 322
15.3.1 Tensile Properties 322
15.3.2 Flexural Properties 325
15.3.3 Impact Strength 325
15.3.4 Hardness 326
15.3.5 Water Absorption Characteristics 327
15.3.6 SEM Morphology 327
15.4 Conclusions and Future Perspective 328
References 329
Chapter 16: Manufacturing of Natural Fibre-Reinforced Polymer Composites by Solvent Casting Method 333
16.1 Introduction 334
16.2 Solvent Casting 335
16.2.1 Behavior and Mechanisms of Dissolution of Polymer 336
16.2.2 Advantages and Shortcomings 337
16.3 Factors That Influence Solvent Casting Method 338
16.3.1 Effect of Choices of Solvent 339
16.3.2 Effect of the Polymer Molecular Weight 340
16.4 Natural Fibre-Reinforced Polymer Composites 341
16.5 Performance of Natural Fibre-Reinforced Polymer Composites 341
16.5.1 Mechanical Properties 341
16.5.2 Thermal Properties 344
16.5.3 Morphology 346
16.6 Potential Applications 346
16.6.1 Automotive 347
16.6.2 Construction 348
16.6.3 Biomedical 348
16.7 Future Perspective 348
16.8 Conclusions 349
References 349
Chapter 17: Processability of Wood Fibre-Filled Thermoplastic Composite Thin-Walled Parts Using Injection Moulding 352
17.1 Introduction 353
17.2 Wood Fibre-Reinforced Thermoplastic Composites 353
17.3 Challenges in Injection-Moulding Process for Wood Composites 355
17.3.1 Injection Moulding for Wood Composites 355
17.3.2 Thin-Walled Moulding Process 360
17.3.3 Minimizing the Wall Thickness 360
17.3.4 Research on Thin-Walled Parts 360
17.4 Formation of Residual Stresses in Injection-Moulding Process 361
17.5 Formation of Shrinkage and Warpage in Injection-­Moulding Process 362
17.6 Optimization and Analysis of the Effect of Processing Parameters on Residual Stress, Shrinkage and Warpage 362
17.7 Potential Industrial Applications 363
17.8 Conclusions 364
References 365
Chapter 18: Filament Winding Process for Kenaf Fibre Reinforced Polymer Composites 369
18.1 Introduction 370
18.2 Filament Winding Process 371
18.3 Review of Filament Winding Process 373
18.4 Filament Winding with Natural Fibre Composites: A Short Review 375
18.5 Improvement of Filament Winding Machine 377
18.5.1 Innovation in Rotating Drum Design 377
18.5.2 Fabrication of Kenaf Composite Hollow Shaft Using Improved Method 379
18.6 Conclusions 381
References 382
About the Editors 384
Index 386