Chitin and Chitosan for Regenerative Medicine (eBook)

Dr. Pradip Kumar Dutta obtained his M.Sc. (Chemistry) and PhD (Polymer Chemistry) from Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur in 1987 and 1993, respectively. He started his career as a research scientist in Birla Research Institute, Nagda, Madhya Pradesh, India in 1992, before awarding his PhD degree. His strong interest in academics drew him to one of the best engineering institutes, Shri G.S. Institute of Technology & Science (SGSITS) in Indore, Madhya Pradesh in1993. He served there for about 10 years with different posts like lecturer, senior lecturer in chemistry and coordinator for Continuing Education Program (All India Council for Technical Education, Govt. of India). In 2002, Dr. Dutta joined as Reader in Chemistry in Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology (Deemed University), Allahabad, India. His progress in academic activities through teaching, research projects, guiding doctoral and post-doctoral students, research collaboration with the liking researchers in India and abroad is continuing. His research interests includes synthesis and modification of polymers, nanomaterials/composites, functional polymers, drug delivery, wound management, tissue engineering, food preservation, etc., He has about 200 papers published in national and international journals, 18 book articles/chapters, and delivered 20 hours video-lecture programme, and prepared 18 course module. He has already supervised 16 M.Sc., 18 M.Tech./M.Phil./M.Pharma and 9 PhD thesis. Presently, 5 PhD students are working under him. He was awarded Commonwealth Academic Staff Fellowship-2007 and visited York University, York, UK. He was also awarded Chinese Academy of Sciences & Third World Academy of Sciences (CAS-TWAS) visiting scholar fellowship 2004, 2006 and 2009 and visited Changchun Institute of Applied Chemistry, Changchun, China for collaborative research work. Beside these, Dr. Dutta extensively visited different countries like South Korea, Japan, Turkey, Switzerland, USA for academic purposes. He is the Founder Editor of an International Journal of Asian Chitin Journal since 2005, Founder Member of Indian Chitin and Chitosan Society, reviewer of various international journals, and Fellow of Royal Society of Chemistry (UK).

Preface 6
Contents 8
About the Editor 10
Part I Focus on Tissue Engineering 11
Chitosan Hydrogels for Regenerative Engineering 12
Abstract 12
1 Introduction 12
1.1 Chitosan 12
1.2 Hydrogels 14
2 Chitosan Hydrogels 16
2.1 Physically Crosslinked Chitosan Hydrogels 17
2.1.1 Thermogelling Hydrogels 17
2.1.2 pH-Mediated Gelation 19
2.1.3 Polyelectrolyte Complexes (PECs) 20
2.2 Chemically Crosslinked Hydrogels 21
2.2.1 Chemically Crosslinked Hydrogels Using Exogenous Crosslinkers 22
2.2.2 Photocrosslinked Hydrogels 24
2.2.3 Enzymatically Crosslinked Hydrogels 25
3 Chitosan Hydrogel for Regenerative Engineering Applications 26
3.1 Orthopedic Regenerative Engineering 27
3.2 Cartilage Regenerative Engineering 29
3.3 Neural Regenerative Engineering 30
3.4 Corneal Regenerative Engineering 31
3.5 Intestinal Regenerative Engineering 32
3.6 Adipose Regenerative Engineering 33
3.7 Liver Regenerative Engineering 34
3.8 Intervertebral Disk Regenerative Engineering 35
3.9 Cardiac Regenerative Engineering 36
3.10 Skin Regenerative Engineering 37
3.11 Ligament Regenerative Engineering 39
4 Conclusions 39
References 40
Prospects of Bioactive Chitosan-Based Scaffolds in Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine 50
Abstract 50
1 Introduction 50
2 In Bone Tissue Engineering 51
2.1 Chitosan–Synthetic Polymer Hybrid Scaffolds 51
2.2 Chitosan–Calcium Phosphate Hybrid Scaffolds 53
2.3 Chitosan–Bioactive Glass Hybrid Scaffolds 54
2.4 Chitosan–Hydroxyapatite Hybrid Scaffolds 56
3 In Cartilage Tissue Engineering 57
3.1 Chitosan-Based Fibrous Scaffolds 58
3.2 Chitosan-Based Scaffolds 58
3.3 Chitosan-Based Composite Scaffolds 58
4 In Liver Tissue Engineering 60
4.1 Chitosan–Collagen Matrices 60
4.2 Alginate–Chitosan Composite Matrices 61
4.3 Chitosan-Based Microfibers 61
5 In Nerve Tissue Engineering 61
5.1 Chitosan-Based Membranes 61
5.2 Chitosan-Based Hydrogels 62
6 In Musculoskeletal Tissue Engineering 62
7 Concluding Remarks 65
References 65
Chitosan-Based Scaffolds for Cartilage Regeneration 69
Abstract 69
1 Introduction 70
2 Characteristics of Cartilage Damage and Reconstruction 71
3 Superiorities of Chitosan-Based Scaffolds for Cartilage Regeneration 72
4 Chitosan-Based Hydrogels for Cartilage Regeneration 73
4.1 Physically Cross-Linked Hydrogels with Chitosan as Matrix 73
4.2 Chitosan-Based Chemically Cross-Linked Hydrogels 74
5 3D Porous Chitosan-Based Scaffolds 76
5.1 Normal 3D Porous Chitosan-Based Scaffolds 77
5.2 Fibrous Scaffolds with Chitosan as Matrix 77
5.3 Chitosan–Silk Scaffolds 78
5.4 3D Printed Chitosan Scaffolds 79
5.5 Dynamic Compression Chitosan Scaffolds 80
5.6 Aggregated Chitosan–Particle Scaffolds 81
6 Other Scaffolds with Chitosan as Matrix 82
6.1 Blood Implant in Marrow Stimulation 82
6.2 Chitosan-Based Cryogels 83
6.3 Chitosan-Coated Scaffolds 83
7 Summary and Future Directions 84
References 84
Composite Chitosan-Calcium Phosphate Scaffolds for Cartilage Tissue Engineering 91
Abstract 91
1 Articular Cartilage 91
2 Tissue Engineering 92
3 Chitosan-Calcium Phosphate Scaffold 93
4 Formation of Biphasic Constructs 96
5 Collagen-Coated Scaffold Characteristics 101
6 Degradation 102
7 Conclusion 103
References 104
Chitosan-Gelatin Composite Scaffolds in Bone Tissue Engineering 106
Abstract 106
1 Introduction 106
2 Chitosan 108
3 Gelatin 113
4 Chitosan-Gelatin Composite Scaffolds 118
5 Chitosan-Gelatin Nanocomposite Scaffolds 121
6 Conclusions 123
References 124
Chitin and Chitosan Nanocomposites for Tissue Engineering 129
Abstract 129
1 Introduction 129
2 Composites Preparation 131
3 Dispersion of Nanoparticles 132
4 Morphology 134
5 Thermal Properties 137
6 Mechanical Properties 139
7 Tissue Engineering 142
8 Drug Release 144
9 Antimicrobial Activity 146
10 Implant Materials 149
References 150
Chitin, Chitosan, and Silk Fibroin Electrospun Nanofibrous Scaffolds: A Prospective Approach for Regenerative Medicine 156
Abstract 156
1 Introduction 156
2 Materials for Regenerative Medicine 157
2.1 Synthetic Polymers for Regenerative Medicine 159
2.2 Natural Polymers for Regenerative Medicine 160
3 Electrospinning 161
3.1 Electrospinning of Natural Polymers 162
3.2 Electrospinning of Chitin 162
3.3 Electrospinning of Chitosan 167
3.4 Electrospinning of Silk Fibroin 173
4 Chitin, Chitosan, and Silk Fibroin-Based Nanofibers: Applications in Regenerative Medicine 179
5 Concluding Remarks 184
References 185
Part II Focus on Therapeutics, Functionalization and Computer Aided Techniques 195
Chitosan: A Potential Therapeutic Dressing Material for Wound Healing 196
Abstract 196
1 Introduction 197
1.1 Phases of Wound Healing 198
1.1.1 Inflammatory Phase 198
1.1.2 Proliferative Phase 198
1.1.3 Remodeling Phase 199
1.2 Wound Healing: Ancient and Modern Concepts 199
1.3 Factors Affecting Wound Healing and Important Factors for Dressing Choice 200
1.4 Polymers in Wound Healing Dressings 201
1.5 Chitosan 202
1.5.1 Structural Analysis and Its Importance 202
1.5.2 Effect of Degree of Deacetylation, Crystallinity, Degradation, and Molecular Weight 203
2 Chitosan in Wound Dressings 204
3 Wound Dressings with Chitosan and Natural Polymers 206
4 Wound Dressings with Chitosan and Synthetic Polymers 213
5 Wound Dressings with Chitosan and Growth Factors 218
6 Wound Dressings with Chitosan and Nanoparticles 220
7 Conclusions 222
References 223
Recent Advances in Chitosan-Based Nanomedicines for Cancer Chemotherapy 231
Abstract 231
1 Introduction 231
2 Chitosan-Based Nanomedicines for Delivery of Chemotherapeutic Agents 234
2.1 Nanoparticles 235
2.2 Microspheres 240
2.3 Chitosan-Drug Conjugates 240
2.4 Micelles 243
2.5 Hydrogels 245
3 Chitosan-Based Gene Delivery for Cancer Chemotherapy 250
4 Combination Therapy Using Chitosan-Based Nanomedicines 252
5 Conclusion 255
References 255
Chitosan: A Promising Substrate for Regenerative Medicine in Drug Formulation 262
Abstract 262
Abbreviations 263
1 Introduction 263
2 Chitosan with Drug Formulations in Haemostatic and Wound Healing 263
3 Chitosan with Drug Formulations in Tissue Engineering Applications 266
4 Chitosan with Drug Formulations in Drug Delivery Applications 267
5 Chitosan as Drug Targeting Applications 270
5.1 Chitosan Magnetic Nanoparticles 270
5.2 Chitosan-Hybrid Hydrogel 271
5.3 Copper-Chitosan Nanoparticles 271
5.4 PH-Triggered Magnetic-Chitosan Nanogels (MCNs) for Doxorubicin Delivery 272
5.5 Immobilization of Lactoperoxidase by Tragacanth-Chitosan Nano-Biopolymers 272
5.6 Starch-Chitosan Nanocomposites for Control Drug Release of Curcumin 273
6 Conclusion 273
References 274
D-Glucosamine and N-Acetyl D-Glucosamine: Their Potential Use as Regenerative Medicine 279
Abstract 279
Abbreviations 280
1 Introduction 280
1.1 Chemical Structure of D-Glucosamine and N-Acetyl D-Glucosamine 281
2 Production of D-Glucosamine and N-Acetyl-D-Glucosamine 282
2.1 Preparation of D-Glucosamine and N-Acetyl D-Glucosamine Using Chemical Method 282
2.2 Preparation of D-Glucosamine and N-Acetyl D-Glucosamine Using Enzymatic Method 284
3 Application of D-Glucosamine and N-Acetyl D-Glucosamine 285
3.1 Application in Tissue Engineering 286
3.2 Application in Cosmetics 287
3.3 Chitin as Drug Delivery Carriers 287
3.4 Application in Regenerative Medicine- Treatment of Osteoarthritis 288
3.5 Application in CancerTumor Imaging 289
4 Concluding Remarks 290
References 291
Functionalized Chitosan: A Quantum Dot-Based Approach for Regenerative Medicine 296
Abstract 296
Abbreviations 296
1 Introduction 297
2 Functionalized Chitosan 299
2.1 Nanoparticles 299
2.2 Organic CompoundComplex 300
2.3 Biomolecule 300
2.4 Inorganic Compound 308
3 Quantum Dots 308
3.1 Cadmium Chalcogenides (CdX) 314
3.2 Zinc Chalcogenides 314
3.3 Lead Chalcogenides 320
3.4 Carbon Dot 320
4 Functionalization of Chitosan by QDs 323
4.1 Synthesis Strategy 324
4.1.1 In Situ Synthesis 324
By Chelation 325
By ?-Radiation 326
4.1.2 Ex Situ Synthesis 327
Electrostatic Attraction 327
Amide Bond Formation 328
5 QDs-Functionalized Chitosan: Applications in Regenerative Medicine, Biomedical and Industrial Field 329
5.1 Detection of Pathogen 330
5.2 DNA Detection 331
5.3 Gene Delivery 331
5.4 Sensing Application 332
5.5 Cancer Diagnosis, Cell Imaging, and Controlled Drug Delivery 333
6 Concluding Remarks 335
References 338
Development and Selection of Porous Scaffolds Using Computer-Aided Tissue Engineering 349
Abstract 349
1 Introduction 350
1.1 In Vitro Synthesis of Chitosan Scaffolds 352
1.2 Selection of Biomaterials for Porous Scaffolds 354
1.2.1 Biopolymers from Nature 354
1.2.2 Biopolymers from Synthetic Sources 354
1.3 Tissue Engineering 356
1.4 Tissue Scaffolds 358
1.5 Computer-Aided Tissue Engineering 359
1.5.1 Finite Element Methods in Tissue Engineering 360
Images of Human Tissue Using Computed Tomography and Magnetic Resonance Imaging 361
1.6 CAD in Tissue Engineering 362
1.6.1 Porous Tissue Scaffolds Using CAD 364
2 History of Various Approaches in Modeling, Design, and Fabrication of Scaffolds 364
3 Some Useful Facilitated Properties of Chitosan Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering with Special Reference to SEM 368
4 Mechanical Testing of Chitosan-Based Scaffolds 372
4.1 Porosity Testing 372
4.1.1 Porosity Testing for Hybrid Scaffolds 373
4.1.2 Porosity Testing for Chitosan Scaffolds 374
4.2 Effective Young’s Modulus 375
5 Modeling of Unit Cell of Scaffold 378
6 Concluding Remarks 380
References 381
Author Index 387