Smart Sensors and Systems (eBook)

Youn-Long Lin is a Chair Professor in the Department of Compute Science, National Tsing Hua University, Taiwan. His research interests include High-Level Synthesis and Physical Design Automation of VLSI, SOC Design Methodology, Video Coding Architecture Design, and Software-Defined Networking. He co-authored the book – High-Level Synthesis: Introduction to Chip and System Design. He has served on editorial boards of ACM TODAES and TECS. He is a co-founder of Global Unichip Corp. Professor Lin obtained his PhD in Computer Science from the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, IL, USA, in 1987. Chong-Min Kyung received B.S. in EE from Seoul National University in 1975, M.S. and  Ph.D. in EE from KAIST in 1977 and 1981, respectively. Since 1983 he has been working at the  KAIST on CAD, computer graphics, microprocessors, DSP cores, and SoC’s. His current  research interest is system-level optimization of smart sensors, especially 3-D smart cameras.  In 2011 he founded and currently leads Center for Integrated Smart Sensors (CISS), a Global  Frontier Project supported by Korean Government. He received Best Paper/Design Awards in  numerous international conferences including ASP-DAC 1997 and 1998, DAC in 2000, ICSPAT  in 1999, ICCD in 1999, and ISQED in 2014. He is a member of National Academy of  Engineering Korea, and Korean Academy of Science and Technology, and IEEE fellow.Hiroto Yasuura is an Executive Vice President of Kyushu University and in charge of Finance (CFO), Academia-Industry relationship and Chief Information Officer (CIO) of Kyushu University.. Prof. Yasuura received the B.E., M.E. and Ph.D. degrees in computer science from Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan, in 1976, 1978, and 1983 respectively. Prof. Yasuura developed several EDA systems for VLSI and hardware algorithms in Kyoto University. In Kyushu University, Prof. Yasuura have conducted research projects on the system LSI design methodology. He also developed an educational microprocessor, KUE-CHIP2, and promoted education of VLSI design in computer science area in Japan with VDEC in University of Tokyo. Prof. Yasuura served as Technical Program Chair and General Chair of ICCAD in 1997 and 1998, respectively. He served as a Vice President of IEEE CAS Society, an ACM SIGDA advisory board member, and General Chair of ASP-DAC 2003. He is also the Steering Committee Chair of ASP-DAC and a fellow of IEICE and IPSJ.Yongpan Liu is an associate professor in Dept. Of Electronic Engineering, Tsinghua University. His research is supported by NSFC, 863, 973 Program and Industry Companies such as Intel, Rohm, Huawei and so on. He has published over 50 peer-reviewed conference and journal papers and led over 6 SoC design projects for sensor applications and has received the ISLPED2012/2013 Design Contest Award and several Best Paper Candidates. He is an IEEE, ACM and IEICE member and has been invited to serve on several conference technical program committees (DAC, ASP-DAC, ISLPED, ICCD, A-SSCC, etc.).

Preface 6
Contents 10
About the Editors 12
Part I Biochemical Sensing Mechanism and Devices 14
“C-chip” Platform for Electrical Biomolecular Sensors 15
1 Introduction Affinity Based Electrical Biochip
1.1 General Introduction 15
1.2 Sensor Characteristics of the Affinity-Based Electrical Biochip 18
1.3 Challenges 19
2 “C-chip” Platform 21
2.1 Introduction 21
2.2 Concentric Electrode 22
2.3 Carbon Nanotube Network with the GNP (Gold Nano Particles) 25
2.4 Passivation of the CNN Defects 27
2.5 Electrical Pulse Method: The SNU (Seoul National University) Approach 28
3 Summary Toward the General Immunoassay
References 34
Chemomechanical Transduction Systems: A Sensing Platform by Surface Force Measurement 36
1 Introduction 36
2 Theoretical Background 37
2.1 Principle of Chemo Mechanical Transduction 39
2.1.1 Surface Stress 39
2.1.2 Thin Plate Theory 40
2.2 Chemomechanical Transducer 44
2.2.1 Cantilever Transducer 45
2.2.2 Membrane Transducer 47
2.3 Surface Sensitization Technique 50
2.3.1 Surface Sensitization 51
2.3.2 Molecular Immobilization on Solid Surface 51
2.3.3 Aptamer 52
2.3.4 Dissociation Constant 54
References 55
Fully Printable Organic Thin-Film Transistor Technology for Sensor Transducer 57
1 Introduction 57
2 Printable Thin-Film Transistors 59
3 Challenges for Low Operation Voltage Printable Transistors 61
4 Fully Printable Low Voltage OTFTs 61
5 Application Example for pH Sensing 66
6 Summary 67
References 68
Part II Imaging, Photography, and Video Analytics 70
The Three-Dimensional Evolution of Hyperspectral Imaging 71
1 Introduction 71
2 Hyperspectral Imaging 72
2.1 Bandpass Filter-Based Imaging Spectroscopy 72
2.1.1 Bandpass Filter-Based Systems 72
2.1.2 Liquid Crystal Tunable Filter-Based Systems 73
2.2 Dispersion-Based Imaging Spectroscopy 73
2.2.1 Pushbroom-Based Systems 73
2.2.2 Snapshot-Based Systems 75
2.2.3 Resolution of Dispersion-Based Systems 75
2.3 Calibration of a Hyperspectral Imager 76
2.3.1 Radiometric Calibration 76
2.3.2 Geometric Calibration 76
2.3.3 Color Transformation 78
3 Hyperspectral Three-Dimensional Imaging 79
3.1 3D Imaging Spectroscopy 79
3.1.1 The Dispersion-Based Hyperspectral Imager 80
3.1.2 3D System Integration 81
3.1.3 Measuring 3D Hyperspectral Patterns 82
3.2 Hyperspectral Photometric Stereo 82
3.2.1 Photometric Stereo 82
3.2.2 Combining Hyperspectral Imaging with Photometric Stereo 85
3.2.3 Removing Interreflection 85
3.2.4 Measuring a Shape with Hyperspectral Imaging 87
3.3 Rendering Three-Dimensional Hyperspectral Data 87
4 Conclusions 90
References 91
Computational Photography Using Programmable Aperture 93
1 Introduction 93
2 Related Work 96
3 Optical Design and Implementation 97
4 Optical Analysis and Experimental Evaluation 99
4.1 Effective F-Number 99
4.2 Field of View 99
4.3 Light Efficiency 100
4.4 Vignetting 101
4.5 Transmission Fidelity 101
4.6 Distortion 102
4.7 PSF Evaluation 103
5 Evaluation by Applications 104
5.1 Programmable Aperture for Defocus Deblurring 104
5.2 Programmable Aperture for Depth from Defocus 106
5.3 Programmable Aperture for Light Field Acquisition 108
5.4 Programmable Aperture for Motion Deblurring 109
6 Conclusion and Perspectives 115
References 115
Exploratory Visual Analytics for Winter Road Management Using Statistically Preprocessed Probe-Car Data 117
1 Introduction 118
2 Related Research 120
3 Divergence and Flow-Vector Field Analyses of Urban-Scale Traffic 121
4 Exploratory Visual Analytics for Pinpoint Snow Removal 125
5 Conclusions 133
References 135
Part III Gas and Odor Sensing 137
Novel Metal Oxide Gas Sensors for Mobile Devices 138
1 Semiconducting Metal Oxide Gas Sensors 138
2 Challenges in Metal Oxide Gas Sensors for Mobile Applications 140
2.1 Improvement of Sensitivity 140
2.2 Improvement of Selectivity 142
2.3 Improvement of Stability 144
2.4 Reducing Power Consumption 144
3 Ultralow Power Consumption Metal Oxide Gas Sensors 145
3.1 Self-Heated Nanowire Gas Sensors 145
3.2 Self-Heated Thin Film Nanostructure Gas Sensors 146
3.3 Room Temperature Gas Sensors 154
4 Outlook 156
References 159
Handheld Gas Sensing System 161
1 Introduction 161
1.1 Polymer-Coated SAW Gas Sensor 162
1.2 Bioinspired Gas Sensing System 163
1.3 Overview 164
2 SAW Gas Sensor 165
2.1 Design of an SAW Device 166
2.2 SAW Device Fabrication 169
2.3 Sensing Film: Polymer Coating 171
3 Superior Nanocomposite Sensing Materials 173
3.1 Material Synthesis and Characterization 175
3.2 Analysis of the Mesoporous Materials 176
4 Sensor Signal Readout Electronics and Data Cluster Methods 181
4.1 Frequency Readout Electronics 181
4.2 Odor Analysis and Cluster 186
5 Summary 190
References 191
Odor Sensing Technologies for Visualization of OdorQuality and Space 197
1 Introduction 198
2 Odor Quality Visualization 200
2.1 Odor Map and Odorant Molecular Features 200
2.1.1 Odor Map Analysis 200
2.1.2 Extraction of Key Parameters for Odor Map Description 201
2.2 Odor Cluster Sensing Based on Partial Structure Recognition 203
2.2.1 Electrochemical Surface Polarity Controlling Analysis on Partial Structure of Odor Molecules 203
2.2.2 Benzene-Patterned Self-Assemble Monolayer (SAM) Electrode for Odor Recognition 205
2.3 Odor Cluster Sensing Based on Odor Adsorption/Separation System 206
2.3.1 Size and Polarity Clustering of Odorants 206
2.3.2 Odor Cluster Sensing Based on Molecularly Imprinted Polymer (MIP) Materials 207
3 Visualization of Odor Space 209
3.1 Significance of Odor Space Visualization 209
3.2 Odor Visualization by Fluorescence Imaging 211
3.3 Odor Visualization by Localized Surface Plasmon Resonance (LSPR) Sensor 212
4 Applications of Odor Visualization 213
4.1 Visualization of Human Body Odor 213
4.2 Visualization of Odor Release from Fragrance Inclusion Complexes 215
5 Conclusions 216
References 216
Part IV Energy Harvesting 219
Energy Harvesting with Supercapacitor-Based Energy Storage 220
1 Introduction 220
2 Energy Transducers 222
2.1 Direct Current Electricity 223
2.1.1 Photovoltaic Cells 223
2.1.2 Thermoelectric Generators 224
2.2 Alternating Current Electricity 226
2.2.1 Piezoelectric Generators 228
2.2.2 Electromagnetic Generators 228
2.2.3 Electrostatic Generators 228
3 Techniques for Maximizing Efficiency of Harvesters 229
3.1 Maximum Power Point Tracking 229
3.1.1 Graphical Load-Line Analysis 229
3.1.2 Load Matching 231
3.1.3 Sensor-Driven MPPT 231
3.1.4 Perturbation-Based MPPT 232
3.2 Maximum Power Transfer Tracking 233
3.2.1 The Impact of Charging-Circuit Efficiency on MPP 233
3.2.2 Maximum Power Transfer Tracking 233
3.2.3 MPP Trackers vs. MPTP Trackers 234
3.2.4 Harvesting Threshold 235
4 Energy Storage Subsystems 235
4.1 Supercapacitors in Sub-Watt Energy Harvesters 236
4.2 The Characteristics of Supercapacitors 237
4.2.1 Equivalent Circuit Model of Supercapacitors 237
4.2.2 Leakage 238
4.2.3 Charge Redistribution 238
4.2.4 Unusable Residual Energy 240
4.2.5 Size and Topology 240
4.2.6 Cold Booting 242
5 Summary 243
References 244
Power System Design and Task Scheduling for Photovoltaic Energy Harvesting Based Nonvolatile Sensor Nodes 247
1 Introduction 247
2 Overall Architecture 249
3 Converter-Less and Storage-Less Photovoltaic Energy Harvesting 250
3.1 Storage-Less and Converter-Less PV Power System 250
3.1.1 System Architecture 250
3.1.2 MPPT with Fine-Grain Dynamic Power Management 251
3.2 System Model 253
3.2.1 PV Module 253
3.2.2 Nonvolatile Sensor Node 254
3.3 System Efficiency 255
3.4 Experiments 258
3.4.1 Experimental Setup 258
3.4.2 Comparison of Energy Efficiency 258
3.4.3 Prototype Measurements 261
4 High-Efficiency Dual-Channel Photovoltaic Power System 263
4.1 A Dual-Channel Power System 264
4.1.1 Nonvolatile Sensor Node Supporting DQS 264
4.1.2 Operation Modes and Switching FSM 265
4.2 Evaluation 267
4.2.1 Experimental Setup 267
4.2.2 Comparison of Architectures 268
5 Intra-Task Scheduling on Storage-Less and Converter-Less Architecture 268
5.1 Motivation and Challenges 269
5.1.1 Motivation 269
5.1.2 Challenges 270
5.2 System Modeling and Formulation 270
5.2.1 System Modeling 270
5.2.2 Problem Formulation 272
5.3 Proposed Intra-Task Scheduling Algorithm 272
5.3.1 Algorithm Framework 272
5.3.2 Trigger Mechanism 273
5.3.3 Task Priority Calculation 273
5.3.4 Task Selection 275
5.4 Evaluations 276
5.4.1 Experimental Setup 276
5.4.2 Comparison of Algorithms 276
5.4.3 Discussions 277
6 Related Work 277
7 Conclusion 279
References 279
Part V SoCs and Equipment for Biomedical Sensing 282
Basic Principle and Practical Implementation of Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (NIRS) 283
1 Introduction 283
2 NIRS Principle 284
2.1 Implementation Methods of Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (NIRS) (Time Domain, Frequency Domain, and Continuous Wave) 285
2.2 Light Propagation and the Modified Beer–Lambert Law (MBLL) 287
2.2.1 Photon Propagation in the Brain and the Modified Beer–Lambert Law (MBLL) 287
2.2.2 Diffusion Equation and DPF Calculation 289
2.3 Diffuse Optical Tomography 291
2.4 Superficial Contamination 295
2.5 Modulation Method for Multi-Channel CW NIRS 296
3 NIRS Implementation Example 299
3.1 NIRS System Design 299
3.2 Transmitter and Receiver Modules 300
3.3 Specifications of the Modulation Code 302
4 Conclusion 303
References 303
Wireless CMOS Bio-medical SoCs for DNA/Protein/Glucose Sensing 305
1 CMOS Compatible Bio-Sensors 305
1.1 Cantilever-Based DNA Sensor: Design and Fabrication 306
1.2 Polysilicon Nanowire Based DNA/Protein Sensor 308
1.3 Architecture & Sensing Mechanism
1.4 Hydrogel-Based Glucose Sensor 311
1.5 Ion-Sensitive-FET (ISFET) Based pH Sensor 315
1.6 Bandgap-Based Temperature Sensor 316
2 Readout Circuits 318
2.1 Reconfigurable Multi-Sensor Readout Circuit 318
2.2 Capacitive Readout Circuit 323
2.3 Oscillator-Based Self-Calibrated Readout Circuit 325
3 Sensor System-on-Chip (SoC) 329
3.1 Cantilever-Based Label-Free DNA SoC for Hepatitis B Virus Detection 329
3.1.1 System Introduction 329
3.1.2 Experiment Results 329
3.2 Poly-Silicon-Nanowire-Based Hepatitis B Virus Detection DNA SoC 339
3.2.1 Experiment Results 340
3.3 Glucose Sensor SoC 343
3.3.1 Experiment Results 344
3.4 Reconfigurable Multi-Sensor SoC 345
3.4.1 Energy Harvesting Interface 349
3.4.2 Low-Power OOK Transmitter 353
3.4.3 Experiment Results 354
References 359
Design of Ultra-Low-Power Electrocardiography Sensors 361
1 Introduction 361
2 Event-Driven ADC with Real-Time QRS Detection 363
2.1 QRS Detection Algorithms and Performance Evaluations 365
2.2 Circuit Design Considerations 369
2.2.1 0.3 V Process-Insensitive Comparator 369
2.2.2 Low-Voltage DAC and System Hysteresis 371
2.2.3 Asynchronous LC Timer and Delay Cell 372
3 Transceiver SoC 374
3.1 Transceiver Design 374
3.1.1 Power Isolation Scheme for Receiver 375
3.1.2 Bond-Wire Transmitter 378
3.2 Digital Baseband 379
4 Measurement Results 380
4.1 Event-Driven ADC and QRS Detector 380
4.2 OOK Transceiver 383
5 Conclusions 385
References 386
A Sensor-Fusion Solution for Mobile Health-Care Applications 388
1 Introduction 388
2 Review of the Proposed Event-Driven Architecture 389
3 Sensor-Fusion Architecture 392
4 An Event-Driven Sensor-Fusion Solution for Mobile Health-Care Applications 393
4.1 Case 1: Basic Mode for Heart Rate (HR) Estimation 394
4.2 Case 2: Arrhythmia Detection 397
5 Conclusion 397
References 398
Part VI Deployment and Service of Smart Sensors in the Society 399
An IoT Browsing System with Learning Capability 400
1 Introduction 400
2 Background and Related Works 403
2.1 IoT Browser 403
2.2 Web Services 403
2.3 Sensor Web 404
2.3.1 Service-Oriented Architecture 404
2.3.2 Resource-Oriented Architecture 404
2.4 Semantic Technologies 405
2.5 Context-Aware Services 406
2.6 Flow-Based Interface 407
2.7 Learning 408
3 System Design 408
3.1 System Architecture 408
3.2 Resource and Context Ontology 411
3.3 Context Aware and Source Display 412
3.4 Flow Based Interface and Learning 412
4 System Implementation 414
4.1 A Smart Home Browsing Scenario 415
4.2 Devices Registration 415
4.3 Semantic Markup 415
4.4 Learning 418
4.5 IoT Browser User Interface 419
4.6 Prototyping Experiences 420
5 Conclusions and Future Works 421
References 422
Toward Social Services Based on Cyber Physical Systems 425
1 Introduction 425
2 Cyber Physical System as the Social Infrastructure 426
3 Application to Energy Personalization 428
3.1 Problem Analysis 428
3.2 Estimation of Personal Electric Power Consumption 429
3.3 Experimental Results 432
4 Person Activity Recognition 433
4.1 Camera-Based Person Localization 434
4.1.1 Basic Concept 434
4.1.2 Sensor-View Topology 435
4.1.3 Definition of Sensor-View Topology 435
4.1.4 Estimation of Sensor-View Topology 436
4.1.5 Object Tracking Across Multiple Sensors 437
4.1.6 Performance Evaluation of Wide Area Object Tracking 438
4.2 Person Localization based on Wireless Network 439
4.3 IC Card Readers to Identify the People's ID 440
4.4 Integration of the Three Localization Methods 441
5 Conclusion 443
References 443
Portable Health Clinic: A Telehealthcare System for UnReached Communities 445
1 Background of Telehealth Systems 446
1.1 Telehealth by Mobile Phone in Bangladesh 447
2 Portable Health Clinic System 450
2.1 Healthcare Data Collection and Turnaround Time 453
2.2 Portable Health Clinic Human–Computer Interface 456
3 Testing the Portable Health Clinic System 458
3.1 Results of the Mass NCD Mass Screening 459
3.2 Results of the Telehealth Consultations 459
4 Conclusions 462
References 464