Immersed in Media (eBook)

Contents 6
List of Contributors 8
Chapter 1: Lighting a Path While Immersed in Presence: A Wayward Introduction 16
1.1 Introduction 17
1.2 Telepresence: Defining and Operationalizing a Construct 18
1.3 Telepresence: Research and Design 21
1.4 Telepresence: Applications 22
References 23
Part I: Telepresence Concepts and Theories 25
Chapter 2: Defining Presence 26
2.1 Benefits and Dangers of Standardizing Presence Definitions and Terminology 27
2.2 Historical Overview of Presence Definitions and Terminology 28
2.3 A Framework for Presence Definitions 30
2.3.1 Is Technology Involved in the Phenomenon? 30
2.3.2 What Is the Phenomenon a Property Of? 30
2.3.3 What Is the Source of the Stimuli? 32
2.3.4 How Is Technology Perceived? 33
2.3.5 What Aspect of the Phenomenon Is of Interest? 35
2.3.5.1 Spatial Presence 35
2.3.5.2 Social Presence 36
2.3.5.3 Self Presence 38
2.3.5.4 Engagement 38
2.3.5.5 Realism 38
2.3.5.6 Cultural Presence 39
2.3.5.7 Parapresence 39
2.4 Recommendations 40
2.4.1 Explicitly Identify the Conceptual Definition of Presence You Are Using 41
2.4.2 Resist the Temptation to Create New Presence Definitions and Terms 41
2.4.3 Use Presence Terminology as Precisely and Consistently as Possible 41
2.5 Conclusion 43
References 44
Chapter 3: Presence: Form, Content and Consciousness 48
3.1 Introduction 48
3.2 Formal Requirements for Presence 51
3.3 Presence and the Conscious Self 53
3.3.1 The Evolutionary Levels of Selfhood 54
3.3.2 The Three Layers of Presence 56
3.3.2.1 The First Layer: Proto Presence 56
3.3.2.2 The Second Layer: Core Presence 57
3.3.2.3 The Third Layer: Extended Presence 57
3.4 Presence and Psychotherapy 59
3.5 Presence and Absence 61
3.5.1 The Phenomenology of Presence and Absence 61
3.5.2 On the Measurement of Presence 63
3.5.2.1 Lessons from Synesthesia 63
3.5.2.2 Brain Measures and Action 65
3.5.3 Measuring Absence 66
3.6 Conclusions 67
References 68
Chapter 4: Affect, Availability and Presence 72
4.1 Introduction 72
4.2 Thinking and Feeling 73
4.3 So, to What Is This Affective Response, a Response? 74
4.4 The Primacy of Affect 75
4.5 First Impression as Intentions in Action 75
4.6 The Evaluative Power of Affect 76
4.7 Availability 77
4.8 Affordance 78
4.9 The Neuro-dynamics of Intentionality 78
4.10 The Intentional Arc 79
4.11 Discussion 81
References 83
Chapter 5: Intention, Action, Self and Other: An Evolutionary Model of Presence 85
5.1 Introduction 86
5.2 The Theoretical Background 87
5.2.1 Evolution and Presence 87
5.2.2 Embodied Cognition: Linking Action and Perception 89
5.2.3 From Cognitive to Volitional: The Activity Theory Perspective 91
5.2.4 From Volitional to Cognitive: The Dynamic Theory of Intentions 93
5.3 Our Theoretical Stance 95
5.3.1 From Intentions to Presence 95
5.3.2 The Layers of Presence 97
5.3.3 From Presence to Social Presence 98
5.3.4 The Layers of Social Presence 100
5.3.5 Intentions, Presence and Self 101
5.4 Designing Optimal Presence 102
5.5 Conclusions 104
References 106
Chapter 6: An Action-Based Approach to Presence: Foundations and Methods 112
6.1 Introduction 112
6.2 Foundations 113
6.2.1 Space: The “There” in “Being There” 113
6.2.2 Action: Presence as a Practical Achievement 114
6.2.3 Mediation: Tools and Their Specificities 115
6.3 Implications 116
6.3.1 Beyond the Separation Between Real and Digital 117
6.3.2 Beyond a Neutral, Objective Treatment of the Mediated Environment 117
6.3.3 Beyond Presence as an Intimate State 117
6.4 Studying Presence by Collecting Actions 118
6.5 Driving as Mediated Presence 118
6.6 Conclusions 121
References 122
Chapter 7: Spatial Presence Theory: State of the Art and Challenges Ahead 126
7.1 Introduction 127
7.2 Conceptualizations of Spatial Presence – A Review 128
7.2.1 What Is the Phenomenon of “Spatial Presence” About? 128
7.2.2 Draper and Colleagues: Attention as a Key Determinant of Spatial Presence 130
7.2.3 Steuer: Mapping the Sensory Stimuli Impinging on Our Senses 131
7.2.4 Slater and Colleagues: Spatial Presence as a Gestalt and Binary State 132
7.2.5 Schubert and Colleagues: Spatial Presence as Embodied Cognition 135
7.2.6 Wirth and Colleagues: Spatial Presence Resulting From a Confirmed Perceptual Hypothesis 136
7.2.7 Schubert: A new Conception of Spatial Presence – Once Again, With a Feeling 138
7.3 A Brief Conclusion and Four Challenges Ahead 139
7.3.1 Can Users Feel Spatially Present in Non-interactive Settings? 140
7.3.2 Spatial Presence: A Binary or Continuous Experience? 140
7.3.3 Is There a “Hot Route” to Spatial Presence Experiences? 141
7.3.4 Dual Systems: Is Spatial Presence Affected by Reflective Processing? 141
References 142
Part II: Telepresence Research and Design 147
Chapter 8: Ways to Measure Spatial Presence: Review and Future Directions 148
8.1 Introduction 149
8.1.1 Characteristics of Spatial Presence 149
8.1.2 Which Kind of Measures Are Needed? 150
8.1.3 Classification of Presence Measures 151
8.2 Subjective Methods 151
8.2.1 Post-test Rating Scales/Questionnaires 152
8.2.1.1 Early Efforts to Measure Presence by Questionnaires 152
SUS (Slater et al. 1994, 1995) 152
Kim and Biocca’s (1997) Questionnaire 153
Barfield et al. (1998) Presence Questionnaire PRQ (The Presence &
8.2.1.2 Multidimensional Presence Questionnaires 154
Presence Questionnaire (PQ), Witmer and Singer (1998) 154
Sas and O’Hare’s (2001) Presence Questionnaire 155
Biocca et al. (2001) 155
Igroup Presence Questionnaire (IPQ) (Schubert et al. 2001) 156
ITC Sense of Presence Inventory (ITC-SOPI) (Lessiter et al. 2001) 156
MEC-SPQ (Böcking et al. 2004 Vorderer et al. 2004
TPI (The Temple Presence Inventory e.g., Lombard et al. 2000, 2009, 2011)
8.2.1.3 Evaluation of the Presence Questionnaires 158
8.2.2 Continuous Subjective Presence Assessment Techniques 159
8.2.2.1 Continuous Presence Assessment by a Slider 160
8.2.2.2 Continuous Presence Assessment by a Counter 160
8.2.3 Psychophysical Measures 161
8.2.3.1 Magnitude Estimation 161
8.2.3.2 Method of Paired Comparisons 161
8.2.4 Qualitative Measures 162
8.2.4.1 Interviews 162
8.2.4.2 Continuous Verbal Reporting 163
8.2.4.3 Experience Sampling Method (ESM) 163
8.2.4.4 Repertory Grid Analysis 163
8.2.4.5 Ethnographic Techniques 164
8.2.4.6 Focus Groups 164
8.2.4.7 Evaluation 164
8.2.5 Overall Evaluation of Subjective Measures of Presence 165
8.3 Objective Methods 165
8.3.1 Behavioural Measures 166
8.3.1.1 Direct Observation of Adaptive Behaviours Evoked by Virtual Dangers 166
8.3.1.2 Postural Adjustments and Other Forms of Body Movement 168
8.3.1.3 Attention-Based Measures 168
8.3.1.4 Summary Evaluation of Behavioural Measures 169
8.3.2 Performance Measures 170
8.3.2.1 Performance on Manipulation Tasks 170
8.3.2.2 Memory for Events/Recollection 171
8.3.2.3 Other Possible Performance Measures 171
8.3.2.4 Summary Evaluation of Performance Measures 172
8.3.3 Psychophysiological Measures 173
8.3.3.1 Eye-Related Measures 173
Eye Movements 173
Pupillary Responses 174
Overall Evaluation of Eye-Based Measures 175
8.3.3.2 Brain-Related Measures 175
EEG 176
Other Brain-Related Measures 177
Summary Evaluation of Brain-Based Measures 178
8.3.3.3 Heart-Related Measures 178
Changes in Heart Rate 178
Respiratory Sinus Arrhythmia 180
8.3.3.4 Other Psychophysiological Measures 180
Electrodermal Activity 180
Electromyography 181
8.3.3.5 Summary Evaluation of Psychophysiological Methods 182
8.3.4 Prospects and Limitations of Objective Measures of Presence 183
8.4 Comparing Different Methods to Measure Presence 184
8.5 Conclusions 186
References 187
Chapter 9: An Integrative Approach to Presence and Self-­Motion Perception Research 195
9.1 Motivation and Background 197
9.1.1 Spatial Orientation Problems in VR 197
9.1.2 Spatial Misperception in VR 198
9.1.3 The Challenge of Self-Motion Simulation 199
9.2 Literature Overview on the Perception of Illusory Self-­Motion (Vection) 201
9.2.1 Size of the Visual FOV 203
9.2.2 Foreground-Background Separation Between a Stationary Foreground and a Moving Background 203
9.2.3 Spatial Frequency of the Moving Visual Pattern 204
9.2.4 Velocity and Direction of the Visual Stimulus 205
9.2.5 Eye Movements 206
9.2.6 Non-visual Cues and Multimodal Consistency 206
9.2.7 Cognitive, Attentional, and Higher-Level Influences on Vection 210
9.3 A Selective Review on Presence 213
9.3.1 Presence and Reference Frames 215
9.3.2 Resence and Self-Motion Perception 216
9.3.3 Conclusions 216
9.4 Experiments Investigating the Relations Between Spatial Presence, Scene Consistency and Self-Motion Perception 217
9.4.1 Methods 218
9.4.2 Hypotheses 218
9.4.3 Results and Discussion 219
9.4.4 Experiment 2 – Unobtrusive Modifications of a Projection Screen Can Facilitate Both Vection and Presence 220
9.4.5 Correlations Between Presence Factors and Vection Measures 222
9.5 Discussion: A Direct Link Between Presence and Vection? 224
9.5.1 Low-Level vs. Higher-Level Influences in Experiment 1 & 2
9.5.1.1 Number of Vertical High-Contrast Edges 224
9.5.1.2 Pathway (A): Increase in Perceived Depth and Perceived Self-­Motion Velocity 226
9.5.1.3 Pathway (B): Perceived Foreground-Background Separation and Perceived Background Motion 227
9.5.1.4 Pathway (C): Presence and the Assumption of a Stable Reference Frame 227
9.5.2 Origin of Vection- and Presence-Enhancing Effect of Adding Marks to the Projection Screen 228
9.6 Conclusions and Conceptual Framework 231
9.7 Outlook 234
References 234
Chapter 10: Patterns of Place: An Integrated Approach for the Design and Evaluation of Real and Virtual Environments 244
10.1 Introduction 245
10.2 A Human Computer Interaction Based Approach to Sense of Presence 246
10.3 The Place Probe 249
10.4 A Pattern Based Approach to Design 254
10.4.1 Technology Patterns 255
10.4.2 Patterns of Spatial Characteristics 256
10.4.3 Patterns of Meanings and Affect 258
10.4.4 Activity Patterns 259
10.5 Conclusions 261
Appendix: The Place Probe 262
Instructions 262
Background Information 263
Description 263
Map 263
Features 263
Pictures 263
Sounds 263
Words 264
References 266
Part III: Telepresence Applications 268
Chapter 11: Collaboration in Immersive and Non-­immersive Virtual Environments 269
11.1 Introduction 270
11.2 Technologies 272
11.2.1 Puppeteered Avatars 272
11.2.2 Tracked Avatars 273
11.2.3 Reconstructed Avatars 275
11.3 Impact of Avatars 276
11.3.1 Individual Response 277
11.3.2 Responses to User Avatars 278
11.4 Presence and Co-presence 279
11.4.1 Modality 280
11.4.2 Realism 281
11.4.3 Context 282
11.5 End-States 283
11.6 Challenges 285
References 286
Chapter 12: Presence-Inducing Media for Mental Health Applications 289
12.1 Introduction 290
12.2 Virtual Reality as Presence-Inducing Technology 291
12.2.1 The Link Between Presence and Therapeutic Change 292
12.2.2 The Link Between Presence and Emotions 295
12.3 Virtual Reality in Mental Health Treatments 298
12.3.1 Phobias 305
12.3.1.1 Acrophobia 305
12.3.1.2 Claustrophobia 306
12.3.1.3 Small Animal Phobia 307
12.3.1.4 Flying Phobia 308
12.3.1.5 Driving Phobia 309
12.3.1.6 Public Speaking Fear/Social Phobia 310
12.3.2 Panic Disorder and Agoraphobia. 311
12.3.3 Eating Disorders and Obesity 312
12.3.4 Post-traumatic Stress Disorder 316
12.3.5 Pain Treatment 317
12.3.6 Other Treatments 320
12.3.7 The Limitations of Virtual Reality 321
12.4 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 322
References 325