Sustainability in Food and Water (eBook)

Prof. Akimasa Sumi Professor and Executive Director of the Transdisciplinary Initiative for Global Sustainability (TIGS) at the University of Tokyo (UT). He started his career serving for the Japan Meteorological Agency and later joined UT, as a professor. His research interest is focused on numerical modeling of weather and climate, especially in the context of global climate change. Recently he led a Japanese team to build the highest-resolution climate model for use with Japan’s Earth Simulator, one of the world’s best supercomputers. The successful outcome deepened the understanding of climate change, and significantly contributed to the most recent report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). He was also a Lead Author of chapter 8 of AR4, Working Group I of IPCC. From 1994-2004, he served as Director of the Center for Climate System Research at UT. As the research need on global warming has changed with the changing public awareness, he expanded his research to cover global sustainability, a key concept in addressing climate change. Since 2005, he has been working as the Executive Director in TIGS and promoted researches on various aspects of global sustainability. Currently he also serves as a Member of the Central Environment Council of the Japanese Government. Dr. Kensuke Fukushi Dr. Kensuke FUKUSHI is an associate professor at Transdisciplinary Initiative for Global Sustainability (TIGS), Integrated Research System for Sustainability Science (IR3S), University of Tokyo. After receiving his PhD from the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Utah in 1996, he worked as an assistant professor at Department of Civil Engineering, Tohoku University from 1996 until 1999, as an assistant professor at School of Environment, Resources and Development, Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand from 1999 until 2001, and as an associate professor at the same school until 2001. Then he moved to an associate professor at Environmental Science Center, University of Tokyo in 2001, and arrived at the current position in 2006. He is an expert on environmental engineering, and especially familiar with pollution and remediation of heavy metals in water and soil, and risk assessment. He published his work in various international journals related to water research, environmental engineering, and microbiology. Dr. Ryo Honda Dr. Ryo HONDA is a project assistant professor at Transdisciplinary Initiative for Global Sustainability (TIGS), Integrated Research System for Sustainability Science (IR3S), University of Tokyo. He has got his PhD at Department of Urban Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering, University of Tokyo in 2005. He is an expert in biological wastewater treatment and water resource management. He has good experiences in the field studies in developing world in Asia. He published his work in international journals on environmental engineering and applied microbiology. Dr. Khondoker Mahbub Hassan Dr. Khondoker Mahbub HASSAN is a project researcher at Transdisciplinary Initiative for Global Sustainability (TIGS), Integrated Research System for Sustainability Science (IR3S), University of Tokyo. He got his PhD from the Department of Urban Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering, University of Tokyo in 2009. In his home country, he holds a position of Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Khulna University of Engineering & Technology, Bangladesh. He is an expert in water treatment and water resource management. He was involved with many water related projects for field implementation in the developing countries in Asia. He published his work in various international journals related to water research, and environmental engineering.

Sustainability in Food and Water 3
Table of Contents 7
Preface 13
PART 1 Water Resources Management 15
Sustainable Water Resource Management in China: A Great Challenge 16
Introduction 17
Study Area Description 17
Water Resource Availability 19
Water Consumption 20
Projected Future Water Demand 21
Sustainable Water Resource Management and Strategies 21
Conclusions 22
Acknowledgements 23
References 23
Affecting Factors of Salinity Intrusion in Pearl River Estuary and Sustainable Utilization of Water Resources in Pearl River Delta 24
Introduction 24
Analysis of Factors Affecting Salinity Intrusion 25
The Decrease of the Runoff from Upstream in Dry Period 25
The Topography Change of Estuary and Rivers 26
The Rise of Sea Level Resulting from Global Warming 26
The Effect of Wind Direction on Salinity Intrusion (Pan, 2007) 27
Sustainable Utilization of Water Resources in Pearl River Delta 27
Concluding Remarks 29
References 30
Water Resource Management in Asian Cities –Case Studies of Groundwater Management 31
Introduction 31
Groundwater Use in Asian Cities 32
Environmental Problems Due to Excessive Groundwater Use 32
Groundwater Management Practices in Tianjin and Bangkok 34
Regulations for Groundwater Use 35
Groundwater Charge 35
Encouragement of Using Alternative Water Sources 37
Conclusions 38
Acknowledgements 39
References 39
Identification of Main Factors and Their Relationships in Urban Runoff Pollution of Macau Based on Statistical Techniques 40
Introduction 41
Materials and Methods 41
Study Regions and Field Monitoring System 41
Statistics Analysis 42
Results and Discussion 43
Statistical Results for Three Catchments 43
YLF Catchment 43
SYX Roadway Catchment 45
ELH Park Catchment 46
Discussion 46
Conclusions 48
Acknowledgement 48
References 48
Assessment of Spatial Variations in Surface Water Quality of Kyeongan Stream, South Korea Using Multi-Variate Statistical Techniques 49
Introduction 49
Study Area 50
Materials and Methods 52
Cluster Analysis 52
Factor Analysis 53
Results and Discussion 54
Cluster Analysis 54
Factor Analysis 54
Conclusions 57
References 57
Real-Time Water Resources Analysis and Assessment for Supporting Beijing Water Sustainability 59
1 Introduction 59
2 Methods 62
2.1 Water Resources Assessment Zoning 63
2.1.1 Rainfall-runoff Computation Grids 63
2.1.2 Model’s Parameter Calibration 63
Statistical and Analytical Units 63
Assessment Methods for Major Factors of Water Resources 64
Mean Area Precipitation (MAP) 64
Evapotranspiration Loss (EL) 64
Surface Runoff Generation (R) 65
Application 65
Conclusions 68
References 69
A GIS-Based Bio-Economic Model Applied in Water Resource Management in Shiyang River Basin, Gansu Province, China 70
Introduction 70
Study Site 71
Agricultural Development and Ecological Degradation in Shiyang River 71
Measures of Environmental Rehabilitation 73
Methods 74
Model 74
Scenario Design 76
Results and Discussions 76
Impacts of Environmental Rehabilitation on Farmers’ Income 76
Effects of Extending Water-Saving Technologies, Solar Greenhouse and Off-Farm Employment 78
Effects of Water Reallocation and Compensation 78
Conclusions and Implications 78
References 79
On the Change of Virtual Water in China under Regional Restructuring from 1997 to 2000 81
Introduction 81
Previous Relevant Study 82
Studies on Virtual Water 82
Studies on Virtual Water in China 83
Positioning of the Study 83
Comparative Analysis at Two Points in Time on Virtual Water 83
Estimation Method of the Volume of Virtual Water 83
Virtual Water Transfer in China 85
Virtual Water Transfer in the Yellow River Basin 86
Conclusions 88
References 88
PART 2 Sustainability in Local Water Use 90
Potential Reuse of Wastewater Effluent in Macau 91
Introduction 91
Materials and Methods 93
Analytical Methods 93
Sand Filtration 93
Membrane Filtration 94
Results and Discussion 95
Conclusions 98
Acknowledgement 98
References 98
Ozone Used as a Technology for Reducing the Risk of Wastewater Reuse 99
Introduction 100
Materials and Methods 100
Raw Water 100
Experimental Apparatus 101
Analytical Methods 102
Mutagenicity Assay 102
Results and Discussion 102
Removals of Organics 102
Disinfection Effects 104
Ames Test Results 105
Removal of SDI 107
Conclusions 107
Acknowledgement 107
References 107
Sustainable Water Management of Reclaimed Water Use: Case Study of Tianjin 109
Introduction 109
Methodology 110
Reclaimed water use in Tianjin 110
Jizhuangzi Reclaimed Water Use Project 110
The JizhuangziWastewater Treatment Plant 111
The Jizhuangzi ReclaimedWater Plant 111
Reclaimed Water Use Project in TEDA 112
TEDA Wastewater Treatment Plant 112
TEDA ReclaimedWater Plant 113
Future Reclaimed Water Use Project in Associated Plans 114
Different Systems of Public Reclaimed Water in the Urban Area of Tianjin 114
Existing Problems, Challenges and Recommendations in Sustainable Management of the Reclaimed Water Utilization in Tianjin 115
Management Mechanism 116
ReclaimedWater Price and Economic Stimulation Mechanism 116
Planning Infrastructure 116
Support for Science and Technology 117
Laws and Policies 117
Supervision System and Public Participation 118
Acknowledgement 118
References 118
Organic Hindrance in Groundwater Arsenic Removal Practice 119
Introduction 119
Materials and Methods 121
Results and Discussion 122
Field Inspection of the Treatment Units 122
Performance of the Laboratory AIRU 123
Organic Matter Causes Chemical Leaching of Arsenic in AIRU 124
Organic Matter Causes Bioleaching of Arsenic in AIRU 125
Conclusions 127
Acknowledgement 127
References 127
Factors Associated with Faecal Contamination of Household Drinking Water in a Rural Area,Vietnam 129
Introduction 130
Area Description 130
Methods 131
Study Design, Study Population and Household Selection 131
Water Sampling and Enumeration of Presumptive Thermotolerant Coliforms in Water Samples 131
Data Collection and Analysis 132
Ethics 132
Results 132
Risk Factors for the Presence and Numbers of pThC in Drinking Water Sources 133
Risk Factors for the Presence and Quantity of pThC in Untreated Water Stored in Household Tanks 134
Risk Factors for the Presence of pThC in Treated, Stored Household Drinking Water 134
Discussion 135
Conclusions 140
Acknowledgements 140
References 141
Alternative Safe Water for Communities in the Mekong Delta and Coastal Zone: Vietnam 143
Introduction 143
Material and Methodology 144
Results and Discussion 145
Problem of Water Supply in the Coastal Zone and the Mekong Delta 145
Saline Intrusion 145
UnsecureWater Quantity and Quality and Behavior of Drinking RawWater 145
SODIS as Alternative Solution for Drinking Water Improvement 146
SODIS with Community 147
SODIS with School, Teachers and Children 148
SODIS Cooperation with Other Projects and Organizations 149
Challenges in SODIS Implementation and Promotion 150
Conclusions 150
Acknowledgement 151
References 151
Community Based Management of Traditional Water Resources in Western Himalayan Region 152
Introduction 153
Traditional Water Harvesting Systems 153
Land Use and Geographical Location 153
Precipitation, Water Resources and Water Policy 154
State Forest Policy and Watershed Development 155
Community Empowerment and Local Governance 156
Government Initiatives 156
Methodology 157
Objectives 159
Results and Discussion 160
Conclusions and Policy Recommendations 162
Acknowledgement 163
References 163
PART 3 Aquatic Food Production 164
Quality and Safety of Aquatic Products in China 165
Background 165
Situation and Discussion 166
Suggestions 168
Consolidate the Construction of HACCP, Traceability and GAP System 169
Strengthen the Supervision and Management of Aquatic Product Quality and Safety 169
Improve the Integrity Mechanisms and Advertise the Fundamentality of Food Security 170
Acknowledgement 170
References 170
Notes of Study on Development Strategy of Chinese Fishery to 2030 171
Introduction 172
Background 172
Priority in Chinese Fishery and Challenges 172
The First Priority – Demand for Fish in 2020 and 2030 173
Challenges Faced by Chinese Fisheries 173
Recommendations for Development Strategy of Fishery Scienceand Technology 176
Safeguard Strategy 176
Promotion Strategy 176
Developing and Widening Strategy 176
Innovation Strategy 176
Acknowledgement 179
References 179
Changes in Fisheries and Water Environments of Lake Taihu, China 181
Introduction 181
The Dominant Fishery Species 182
Changes in Fishery Catches 182
Water Environmental Changes and the Relationship with Fisheries 182
Acknowledgements 184
References 184
Wastewater Management in Freshwater Pond Aquaculture in China 185
Introduction 185
Wastewater Treatment 186
Physical Method 187
Sedimentation 187
Mechanical Filtration 187
Aeration 188
Sediment Overturning and Removing 188
Chemical Methods 188
Liming 188
ClO2 189
Ultra-violet Filter and OzoneWater 189
Flocculants 189
Biological Methods 190
Effective Microbes 190
Biological Filtration 190
Botanical Filters in Integrated Aquaculture Systems 191
Poly-Culture 191
Constraints and Developing Trends 192
References 192
Dosing and Timing Addition of Bacterial Biomass for Improving the Water Environment in Shrimp Farming 195
Introduction 195
Materials and Methods 196
Bacterial Strains 196
Estimation of Survival Rate of Bacterial Strains 196
Determination of COD Reduction Ability of Strains 197
Determination of COD 197
Determination of Mineralization Ability Based on Nitrate and Nitrite Reduction 197
Determination of Water Environmental Parameters 197
Results and Discussion 197
Change of Added Bacterial Biomass During Shrimp Breeding 197
Mineralization Ability of Bacteria Strains 198
COD Reduction Ability of Bacterial Strains 199
Selection of Bacteria for Developing a Useful Combination 201
Dosing Bacterial Biomass Addition for Ensuring Environmen tQuality 202
Application of Selected Combination of Bacterial Strains at Pilotand Commercial Scales 202
Conclusions 204
References 204
Study of Mercury Pollution at Bantarpanjang Area (Citarum River) Using Biomarker 205
Introduction 206
Materials and Methods 206
Results and Discussion 207
Conclusions 211
References 211
PART 4 Crop Production 213
Increased Wheat Yield by Rainwater Management: A Case Study in Arid Lands of Iran 214
Introduction 214
Demonstration Site 215
Wheat Cultivation Using Rainwater Irrigation 217
Conclusions 219
References 219
Water – An Emerging Critical Factor in Chinese Rice Production and Trade 221
Introduction 221
Determinants of Chinese Rice Exports 223
Trends in Rice and Major Grain Crop Production 224
Interrelation between Rice Production and Water Supply 229
Summary and Implication for Trade 231
References 232
Sustainability of Water-Use and Food Production in the Haihe Catchment 233
Introduction 233
Study Site 235
Results 235
Sustainability Problems of Regional Water Resources 235
The Role of Agriculture in the Regional and National Economy 237
Agricultural Water-Use and Contribution to GDP 237
Crop Water-Use 238
Discussion 239
Acknowledgement 240
References 241
Exploring Land Use Planning Options: Experiences and Challenges for Food and Water Security 242
Introduction 243
Materials and Methods 243
Results and Discussion 246
Conclusions 249
Acknowledgements 250
References 250
The Impact of the Bio-Ethanol Production to the World Grain Market: A Case Study of World Maize Market 252
Introduction 253
The Simulation Model 253
The Estimation of Price Elasticity of Yield of Maize 253
The Estimation of the Relationship between Ethanol Price and Maize Price 254
Simulation of the Simultaneous Equation Model of the World Maize Market 255
Results of Simulation and Discussion 260
Conclusions 262
Acknowledgement 263
References 263
Optimization of Rice Supply Chain in Thailand:A Case Study of Two Rice Mills 264
Introduction 265
Materials and Methods 266
Transportation Model 266
Farm to Middleman/Rice Mill 267
Middleman to Rice Mill 267
Rice Mill Model 268
Results and Discussion 269
Supply Chain of Company A Located in Harvesting Area (North East of Thailand) 269
Paddy Receiving by Rice Mill 270
Mill Rice Processing 270
Distribution of Products and By-Products 271
Supply Chain of Company B in Central Thailand 271
Paddy Receiving by Rice Mill 272
Mill Rice Processing 272
Distribution 272
Comparison of Supply Chain between Two Companies at Different Locations 273
Transportation Model 275
Transportation Model between Farm and Rice Mill/Middleman 276
TransportationModel between Middleman and Rice Mill 277
Rice Mill Model 277
Rice Mill in the Northeast 279
Rice Mill in the Central Area 279
Traceability System 279
Conclusions 281
References 281
Exploring Behavioral Changes towards Chemical-Safe Agriculture: The Case of Thai Vegetable Farmers 282
Introduction 283
Materials and Methods 283
Results and Discussions 285
Conclusions 287
Acknowledgement 289
References 289
Supply-Demand Balance of Compost between Urban and Agricultural Sectors According to Peri-Urban Development in an Urban-Rural Fringe Area in Asia: A Case Study in Nonthaburi, Thailand 290
Introduction 290
Materials and Methods 291
Study Area 291
Land-Use Change and Population 291
Nitrogen Demand in Agricultural Sectors 292
Nitrogen Discharge from Urban Sectors 292
Estimation of Supply-Demand Balance in Variation of Population Density 293
Results and Discussion 293
The Current Situation of Balance of Supply and Demand Potential 293
Estimation of Supply-Demand Balance in Variation of Population Density 294
Conclusions 296
Acknowledgements 297
References 297
PART 5 Food and Water Securityin Climate Changes 298
Water Resources in the Hexi Corridor and Its Cycle 299
Introduction 299
Studied Area 300
Glacier Water Resources 301
Variations in the Water Resources of Glaciers 302
Runoff Variations 303
Changes in River Runoff 305
Variation Trends of Mountain Runoff 307
Conclusions 308
References 309
Adaptive Capacity to Changes in the Water Cycle: A Case Study of Northern China 311
Introduction 312
Material and Methods 313
Study Region 313
Building of Climate Change Scenarios 313
Building of Socio-Economic Scenarios 315
Projection to Water Supply and Demand 315
Results and Discussion 316
Climate Change Scenarios for 2020s, 2050s and 2080s 316
Socio-economic Scenarios for 2020s, 2050s and 2080s 316
Changes of Water Supplies and Demands 318
Adaptive Capacity Analysis 320
Adaptive Options for Sustainable Development and Utilization of Water Resources 322
Acknowledgement 324
References 324
Measuring Climate Change Risk on Supply Chain of Rice in Bangladesh 326
Introduction 326
Materials and Methods 328
Results and Discussion 329
Conclusions 333
References 333
The Multi-Functional Role of Rice Paddy Area for Food and Water Sustainability – Lessons Learned from Korean Tradition 334
Introduction 334
Multifunctional Role of Rice Paddy Area in Water Management 336
Flood Control 336
Raising Groundwater Level 336
Cooling Atmosphere 337
Erosion Control 337
Cleaning Environment System 337
Water Purification 338
Others 338
Suggestion of a New Paradigm of Rainwater Management 338
Rainwater Is the Source of All Water 339
Management by Area 339
Decentralized Management 339
Source Control 339
Involvement of Local Action 340
Conclusion 340
References 340
Promoting Plant Residue Utilization for Food Security and Climate Change Mitigation in Thailand 341
Introduction 342
Study Area and Research Methods 343
Study Area 343
Research Methods 343
Results and Discussion 344
Policy Analysis and Gap Identification 344
Existing Management Practices of Plant Residues in Farmland 345
Potential to Involve Elementary Schools and Students for Management of Farmland Plant Residues 346
Policy Recommendation: Integrated Management of Plant Residues for Food Security, Income Generation, and Climate Change Mitigation 347
Conclusions 349
Acknowledgement 349
References 349
No-Regret Adaptation Strategies to Cope with Potential Impacts of Climate Change on Groundwater Resources of Asian Cities 351
Introduction 351
Materials and Methods 352
Results and Discussion 353
Groundwater Use 353
Problems Related to Groundwater 354
Potential Impacts of Climate Change on Groundwater Resources 355
Potential Impacts on Groundwater Due to Change of Temperature and Precipitation 355
Degradation of Groundwater Quality by Sea Level Rise 356
Potential Impacts of Land Use Change Caused by Climate Change 356
Potential Degradation of Groundwater by Afforestation andCarbon Sequestration 356
Increase of Groundwater Dependency Due to Changes in Water Use 357
Adaptation Measures and Strategies 357
Integrating Adaptation Strategies into National Policy and Planning 358
Promoting Water Harvesting and Conservation Technologies 358
Rainwater Harvesting for Domestic Use 358
Rainwater and Run-offWater Harvesting for Agriculture 358
Managed Aquifer Recharging 359
Institutional Adaptations and Considerations 359
Promoting Local Management in Groundwater 359
Assigning Groundwater Use Rights 359
Introducing a Pricing Scheme 360
Capacity Building, Education, Training and Public Awareness 360
Conclusions and Recommendations 360
Acknowledgement 361
References 361
PART 6 Environmental Management 363
Food or Environment: An Alternative Solutionto Tradeoff of Water Allocation in Oasis Regions of China 364
Introduction 364
Study Site 365
Method 367
Model 367
Data and Base Run 368
Scenario Design 369
Simulation Results 370
Impacts of Reducing Water Use 370
Effects of Water-Saving Techniques Extension and Off-Farm Job Opportunity Increase 371
The Level and Cost of Food Security Could Be Maintained 372
Direct Cost of Subsidy for Improving Food Security 373
Opportunity Cost with Concomitant Structural Change toMaintain Food Security 374
The Effects of Increasing Off-farm Opportunity 375
Conclusions and Implications 375
References 376
Impacts of Water Environment and Conservation for Sustainable Development in Northern Philippines 377
Introduction 377
Materials and Methods 379
Case Study 1 379
Case Study 2 379
Results and Discussion 380
Case Study 1 380
Case Study 2 382
Conclusions 383
Acknowledgements 384
References 384
Material Flow Analysis of Nitrogen and Phosphorus for Regional Nutrient Management: Case Study in Haiphong, Vietnam 386
Introduction 386
Methods 387
Estimation of Material Flow 387
Results and Discussion 392
Conclusions 393
References 394
Application of Sulfur Denitrification Process to Remove Nitrate-nitrogen Discharged from Agricultural Field 395
Introduction 396
Materials and Methods 396
Field Survey 396
Bacterial Community Analysis 397
DNA Extraction 397
PCR-DGGE Method 397
Sequencing of DGGE Bands 398
Cultivation Method 398
Results and Discussion 399
Water Quality 399
Microbial Community Analysis by PCR-DGGE and Sequencing 400
Changes in DGGE Bands by Cultivation 401
Discussion 402
Conclusions 403
Acknowledgements 403
References 403
Bioremediation of Soil and Groundwater Contaminated by Volatile Organic Compounds 405
Soil/Groundwater Contamination in Japan 405
Treatment Methods 407
Bioremediation of Chlorinated Ethylenes 408
Bioremediation of Benzene 409
Summary 409
References 410
Cadmium Extraction from Contaminated Soil Using an Iron Chloride Solution in Asian Countries 411
Introduction 411
Materials and Methods 413
Artificially Polluted Soil 413
Extraction Test and Determination of Leaching 413
Results and Discussion 413
Relationship between Cd Extraction and FeCl3 Concentration 413
Cadmium Extraction Behavior According to Shaking Period 415
Chemical Form Distribution of Soluble Cd 416
Conclusions 416
Acknowledgment 417
References 417
A Strategy in Assessing Plant Residue Material Quality to Enhance Sustainability of Lowland Agricultural Systems 419
Introduction 420
Materials and Methods 421
Laboratory Experiment 421
Field Experiment 421
Results and Discussion 422
Laboratory Experiment 422
Field Experiment 425
Conclusions 426
Acknowledgement 427
References 427
Redesigning Institutions and Governance Systems for Urban Water Demand Management: Case of Developing City Delhi, India 429
Introduction 430
Context and Issues 430
Materials and Methods 431
Demand Side Analysis ofWater Utility in Developing City ofDelhi 432
Non-Revenue Water (NRW) in Delhi City 433
Results and Discussion 434
Conclusions and Policy Implications 436
Acknowledgements 438
References 438
The Impact of Regulatory Change on Trading Partners: Race to the Bottom or Convergence to the Top?* 439
Introduction 440
Debate of Trading Up and Down 441
Three Mechanisms through which RTT Occurs 442
Food Safety Regulation 442
Chinese Food Safety Regulatory System: MOA and AQSIQ 442
Food for Domestic Use 442
Food for Export 443
Japan’s Regulation on Pesticide Residues in Foodstuffs: Positive List System for Agricultural Chemical Residues in Food 443
The Impact of Regulatory Change 444
Four Scenarios 444
Application of the Framework 445
The Willingness and Interest of the Country 445
The Mechanisms through which RTT Takes Place 445
(a) Market Mechanism 445
The type of regulation: product or process 445
The market size of the trading partner 446
The cost of regulatory change 446
Informal mechanism: MNCs and export-oriented firms 447
(b) Institutional Mechanism 447
Conclusions 447
Acknowledgement 448
References 448
Author Index 450
Subject Index 452