Water and Sustainability in Arid Regions (eBook)

Preface 4
Notes 5
Acknowledgments 6
Contents 8
List of Contributors 10
Editors 10
Authors 11
Introduction 15
Part I 16
Part II 17
Part III 18
Notes 20
Bibliography 20
Part I Contemporary Issues 21
1 Eco-reconstruction in Northwest China 22
1.1 Aridity in the Northwest Region of China 22
1.2 Complexities of Natural Processes 23
1.2.1 Sandy Desertification 24
1.2.2 Secondary Salinization 25
1.2.3 Rangeland Degradation 25
1.3 Nature and Eco-reconstruction 26
1.3.1 Afforestation and Greening Projects 26
1.3.2 Eco-restoration and Enclosure 27
1.3.3 Nature Reserves 28
1.4 Water and Land Resources for Sustainable Development 28
1.4.1 Land Reclamation 29
1.4.2 Water Resources 29
1.4.3 A Crisis: The Minqin Oasis 30
1.5 Reconciling Development with Nature 32
Notes 32
References 33
2 Remote Sensing Assessment of Salinization Impacts in the Tarim Basin: The Delta Oasis of the Ugan and Kuqa Rivers 34
2.1 Soil Salinization and Monitoring Salt-Affected Areas 34
2.2 Study Area 36
2.3 Image Data 37
2.4 Extraction Method of Salinized Soil Information 38
2.4.1 Data Characteristic Selection for the Extraction of Salinized Soils Information 40
2.4.1.1 NDVI 40
2.4.1.2 Modified Normalized Difference Water Index (MNDWI) 40
2.4.1.3 Karhunen--Loeve Transform 41
2.4.1.4 TM1 Band 43
2.4.2 The Establishment of a Decision Tree Classifier Model 43
2.4.3 Post-classification Processing 46
2.4.4 Accuracy Assessment 47
2.5 The Keys for Extracting Soil Salinization Information 47
Note 48
References 48
3 Estimating Net Primary Production in Xinjiang Through Remote Sensing 52
3.1 Estimating Net Primary Production 52
3.2 Study Area: Xinjiang 54
3.3 Research Method 54
3.3.1 Data Source 54
3.3.2 Development of NPP-GPEM Model 55
3.3.3 Parameters Acquisition 57
3.3.4 Performance of the Model 58
3.4 Results 58
3.4.1 Validation 58
3.4.2 Spatial Distribution of NPP in Xinjiang's Terrestrial Ecosystem 59
3.4.3 Spatial'Temporal Pattern Variance of NPP in Xinjiang's Terrestrial Ecosystem 60
3.4.4 Interannual and Intergenerational Spatial--Temporal Pattern of NPP in Xinjiang 61
3.5 Methodological Analysis 63
Notes 66
References 68
4 The Recent Evolution of the Oasis Environment in the Taklimakan Desert, China 70
4.1 The Xinjiang Region: An Overview 70
4.2 Environmental Degradation in Xinjiang 73
4.3 Study Area Description and Data Collection 76
4.4 Atmospheric Correction 78
4.5 Soil Salinity Index (SSI) 80
4.6 Analysis of Oasis Environment Evolution by Multi-temporal Data 84
4.7 Methodological Perspectives 90
Notes 91
References 91
5 High Demand in a Land of Water Scarcity: Iran 94
5.1 Water Crisis 94
5.2 Rainfall 95
5.3 Agriculture Water Consumption 96
5.4 Groundwater Resources 98
5.5 Soil and Water Salinization 99
5.6 Water Pollution 102
5.7 Iranian Water Resource Management 103
5.8 Sustainability for Future Generations 103
Notes 104
References 104
6 Common Scarcity, Diverse Responses in the Maghreb Region 106
6.1 Hydric Stress in the Maghreb 106
6.2 Water Resources 107
6.2.1 Surface Water 108
6.2.2 Renewable Groundwater 110
6.2.3 Nonrenewable Aquifers 110
6.2.4 Desalination of Seawater 112
6.2.5 Recycling 114
6.3 Water Resources Management 114
6.3.1 Water Collection and Distribution 116
6.3.1.1 Dams 116
6.3.1.2 Colinary Lakes 118
6.3.1.3 Rainwater Collection 118
6.3.2 Reuse of the Foggara/Khettara 119
6.4 The Water Agenda 119
Notes 120
References 120
7 Changing Water Resources and Food Supply in Arid Zones: Tunisia 122
7.1 Water Resource Planning and Management in Tunisia 122
7.2 A Vulnerable System Under Intensive Surveillance 123
7.3 Food Security, Food Trade, and Virtual Water 124
7.4 Factors of Change and the Comprehensive Water Balance Model 126
7.5 Climate Change 129
7.6 Food Availability on the International Market 133
7.7 Virtual Water: Political and Economic Feasibility 135
7.8 Drought 135
7.9 Food Production Efficiency 137
7.10 Water Resources Management in the Twenty-First Century 138
Note 139
References 139
Part II Learning from History 141
8 The Qanat: A Living History in Iran 142
8.1 Ab: High Demand in a Land of Scarcity 142
8.2 The Qanat System: A History 143
8.3 Construction: Locating a Site and Digging the Tunnel 144
8.4 Continuous, Parallel, Convergent, and Two-Layered Qanats 148
8.5 Using Qanats for Cooling 149
8.6 Benefits and Disadvantages of Qanats 151
8.7 The Decline of Qanats 152
8.8 Sustaining Qanats for Sustainable Development 153
Note 154
References 154
9 Notes from the Turpan Basin: Pioneering Research on the Karez 156
9.1 Origin and Diffusion of the Karez 156
9.1.1 The Karez in Turpan 158
9.1.2 The Story of Arupu 158
9.2 Characteristics of a Karez 159
9.3 Irrigation 163
9.4 Current Status of the Karez 164
Notes 164
Key References for the Karez in China 165
10 An Introduction to the Khettara in Morocco: Two Contrasting Cases 167
10.1 The Khettara: A Historical Overview 167
10.2 Deathand Survivalof Khettaras 173
10.3 Tlout (Reviving) 175
References 178
11 Digitally Conserving an Endangered Built Heritage in Kashgar, an Oasis City of the Taklimakan 180
11.1 Kashgar: A Brief History 180
11.1.1 An Oasis in the Desert: Kashgar 181
11.2 Water Spaces 181
11.2.1 The Structure of the Inhabited Space: A Response to the Environment 182
11.3 Town Planning and Vernacular Architecture 184
11.3.1 Urban Morphology and Architectural Typologies 184
11.3.2 House with Interior Courtyards 185
11.3.3 Loggia-style Buildings 185
11.4 Digitally Recording the Built Heritage 186
11.4.1 Architectural ''Morphotypes'': Describing Emblematic Buildings 186
11.4.1.1 The Photographs 187
11.4.2 The Recording and Valorization of Architectural ''Morphotypes'' 189
11.5 Conserving the Memory of an Oasis City 191
Notes 191
Bibliography 193
12 The Taklimakan Oases: An Environmental Evolution Shown Through Geoarchaeology 195
12.1 Keriya: A Valley at the End of the World 195
12.2 Daheyan: The Present Keriya and Delta 199
12.3 Karadong: The Ancient Delta 203
12.4 Djoumboulak Koum: The Protohistoric Delta 207
12.4.1 Djoumboulak Koum: a Fortified Settlement of the Iron Age 207
12.4.1.1 Exploitation of the Environment and the Way of Life 209
12.4.1.2 Irrigation Network 210
12.4.2 The Oasis of Djoumboulak Koum 211
12.4.3 Before Djoumboulak Koum: The Bronze Age Recaptured 212
12.5 An Unbalanced Equilibrium 213
Notes 213
References 214
Part III Management for Sustainability 217
13 How the Predominance of Water Resources Informs Management 218
13.1 Water Resources in Arid and Semiarid Zones 218
13.1.1 Predominant Resources: IR, ER, and NR 220
13.2 Consequences for Water Management 227
13.3 Impacts on Development 230
13.4 Notes 231
References 231
14 Conjunctive Water Management in the US Southwest 233
14.1 Conjunctive Management Processes: An Introduction 233
14.1.1 Motivation 234
14.1.1.1 Stream Depletions 235
14.1.1.2 Surface Water Rights 236
14.1.1.3 Groundwater Development and the Conflicts with Prior Appropriation 236
14.1.2 Interaction Between Surface Water and Groundwater 237
14.2 Water Resources Management in Semiarid Regions 238
14.2.1 Southwestern Water Resources Management 238
14.2.2 Water Management Examples 239
14.2.2.1 Impact of Droughts on Water Management 239
14.2.2.2 Surface Water/Groundwater Interaction: Edwards Aquifer System 240
14.2.2.3 The Rio Grande Project: New Mexico and Texas 242
14.2.2.4 Domestic Wells 248
14.2.2.5 Water Resources Management in a Transboundary Basin: The Conchos 250
14.2.2.6 Climate Variability and Change in Semiarid Basins 251
14.3 Complexities of Water Management: A Recap 254
Notes 254
References 255
15 Managing Water Amid Rapid Urbanization: Mexicos North Borderlands 257
15.1 Cities in the Desert 257
15.2 Growth and Water 259
15.3 Facing the Water Challenge 262
15.3.1 Service Coverage 262
15.3.2 Reducing Water Loss 263
15.3.3 Wastewater 265
15.3.4 Finding Additional Sources of Water 266
15.4 Limitations of the Institutional Framework 266
15.5 Rationality in Water Management 269
Notes 270
References 270
16 Forecasting Streamflows in the San Juan River Basin in Argentina 273
16.1 Long-Lead Streamflow Forecasting 273
16.2 The San Juan River Basin 275
16.2.1 San Juan River Hydrology 275
16.2.2 The Importance of Irrigation to the Economy 278
16.3 Data Used 279
16.4 Model Performance Criteria 279
16.4.1 Mean of the Squared Errors (MSE) 280
16.4.2 Mean of the Absolute Percentage Errors (MAE) 280
16.4.3 Correlation Coefficient (R) 280
16.5 Forecasts with Multiple Regression Model 280
16.6 Neural Network Model 282
16.6.1 Comparison between the ANN and MR Models 284
16.7 Benefits of Improved Forecasts 285
References 285
17 Arsenic and Water Quality Challenges in South America 287
17.1 An Introduction to Arsenic Contamination 287
17.2 The Extent of the Arsenic Problem in Two Study Areas 290
17.2.1 Argentina 290
17.2.1.1 Superficial and Subterranean Hydrology 291
17.2.1.2 Arsenic in Water Sources 291
17.2.2 Chile 296
17.2.2.1 Superficial Hydrology 297
17.2.2.2 Arsenic in Water Sources 297
17.3 Arsenic Mitigation 299
Note 302
References 302
18 Evaluating the Restoration of Dryland Ecosystems in the Northern Mediterranean 306
18.1 Drylands in the Northern Mediterranean: Degradation Threats and Restoration Needs 306
18.2 Mediterranean Dryland Restoration 309
18.3 Evaluation of Forest Restoration Projects in the Northern Mediterranean 310
18.3.1 The REACTION Approach: An Integrated Forest Restoration Evaluation Framework 311
18.4 Dryland Restoration and Water Budgets 313
18.5 Lessons Learned: Implications for Practice 315
Notes 318
References 318
19 Old and New: Changing Paradigms in Arid Lands Water Management 322
19.1 Why Arid Lands? 322
19.2 Water Management Issues in Arid and Semiarid Lands 324
19.2.1 Issues in Developing Countries 324
19.2.2 Issues in Developed Countries 325
19.2.3 Some Common Issues 326
19.3 Context of Water Management in the Postwar Decades (1945 to mid-1970s) 327
19.4 Comparison of Postwar and Current Ideas in Water Management 328
19.5 Groundwater 329
19.6 Enhancing Water Supplies 331
19.6.1 Weather Modification 331
19.6.2 Water Harvesting 331
19.6.3 Desalination 332
19.6.4 Wastewater Reuse 333
19.6.5 Stormwater Runoff 334
19.6.6 Conservation 334
19.7 Water Allocation Policies 335
19.8 Toward Integrated, Global Water Management 337
19.9 What Have We Learned About Water Management for the Twenty-First Century? 339
Notes 340
References 341
Glossary of Units of Measurement and Chemical Formulas 344
Units of Measurement 344
Chemical Formulas 345
Color Plates 346
Index 358