Handbook of Descriptive Linguistic Fieldwork (eBook)

Shobhana L. Chelliah is Associate Professor at the University of North Texas, Denton. Her expertise covers the following areas of the Linguistics field Language Documentation and Description, Tibeto-Burman Languages of North-east India, Indian English, World English, TESOL. Willem J. de Reuse is currently Adjunct Professor, University of North Texas, Denton.

Acknowledgements 6
Contents 8
Chapter Synopsis of a Handbookof Descriptive Linguistic Fieldwork 16
Chapter 1: Introduction 16
Chapter 2: Definition and Goals of DescriptiveLinguistic Fieldwork 16
Chapter 3: The History of Linguistic Fieldwork 16
Chapter 4: Choosing a Language 17
Chapter 5: Field Preparation: Research, Psychological,and Practical 17
Chapter 6: Fieldwork Ethics: the Rightsand Responsibilities of the Fieldworker 17
Chapter 7: Native Speakers and Field Workers 18
Chapter 8: Planning Session, Note Taking,and Data Management 18
Chapter 9: Lexicography in Fieldwork 19
Chapter 10: Phonetic and Phonological Fieldwork 19
Chapter 11: Morphosyntactic Typology and Terminology 19
Chapter 12: Grammar Gathering Techniques 20
Chapter 13: Semantics, Pragmatics, and Text Collection 20
Chapter 1: Introduction 22
References 25
Chapter 2: Definition and Goals of Descriptive Linguistic Fieldwork 27
2.1 The Definition of Descriptive Linguistic Fieldwork 27
2.2 The Goals of Descriptive Linguistic Fieldwork 30
2.2.1 Primary Goals of Fieldwork 30
2.2.1.1 Documentary Linguistics 31
2.2.1.2 Descriptive Linguistics 34
2.2.1.3 On the Relationship Between Documentary and Descriptive Goals of Fieldwork 35
2.2.2 Secondary Goals of Descriptive Linguistic Fieldwork 37
2.2.2.1 Religious Instructional Goals 38
2.2.2.2 Instructional Goals Relating to the Preservation of Endangered Languages 39
2.2.3 Ancillary Goals of Descriptive Fieldwork 40
2.2.3.1 Non-comparative Theoretical Goals 41
2.2.3.2 Comparative Theoretical Goals 41
2.2.3.3 Dialectological or Sociolinguistic Goals 42
2.2.3.4 Goals Regarding the Study of Language, Culture, and Cognition 43
2.3 Aspirations and Limitations of Linguistic Fieldworkers 43
References 45
Chapter 3: The History of Linguistic Fieldwork 52
3.1 Introduction 52
3.1.1 Why Study the History of Fieldwork? 53
3.1.2 Limitations on the Study of the History of Fieldwork 54
3.1.3 Fieldwork as a Funded Enterprise in European and American Traditions 55
3.2 The History of Christian Missionary Linguistic Fieldwork 56
3.2.1 Early Activities in Africa and Asia 56
3.2.2 Missionary Beginnings in Latin America 57
3.2.3 Missionary Beginnings in North America 59
3.2.4 German Colonial Missionary Work in Africa 60
3.2.5 Missionary Work in Australia, Papua New Guinea, and the Pacific 61
3.2.6 The Interesting Case of Moravian Missionary Work 61
3.2.7 Other Nineteenth Century and Early Twentieth Century Missionary Work 62
3.2.8 The Summer Institute of Linguistics and the Wycliffe Bible Translators 63
3.2.9 Lessons from This Section 64
3.3 “Gentleman Scholars” and Linguistic Fieldwork 65
3.3.1 Busbecq and Crimean Gothic 65
3.3.2 Hennig von Jessen and Polabian 66
3.3.3 Lhuyd, Barrington, and the Last Speakers of Late Cornish 66
3.3.4 Imperial Britain 67
3.3.5 German “Gentleman Scholars” in the Nineteenth Century 68
3.3.6 Commissioned Wordlist Gathering 68
3.3.7 Lessons from This Section 69
3.4 Fieldwork in Less Than Optimal Circumstances 70
3.4.1 Slaves 70
3.4.2 Prisoners 70
3.4.3 Indigenous People in Exhibits, Museums or Hospitals 71
3.4.4 Exiled or Imprisoned Fieldworkers 72
3.4.5 Lessons from This Section 73
3.5 Fieldwork in Collaboration with Native Consultants 73
3.5.1 Native Speaker-Missionary Collaborations 73
3.5.2 Early Cases of Recognition of Native Speaker Talent and Insight 74
3.5.3 Native Speaker Linguists in the Boas-Sapir-Bloomfield Tradition 74
3.5.4 The Impact of Kenneth Hale 75
3.5.5 Lessons from This Section 76
3.6 Fieldwork Contemporaneous with Academic Traditions Less Supportive of Fieldwork 76
3.6.1 Fieldwork in Neogrammarian Times 76
3.6.1.1 Comparativist Fieldwork 77
3.6.1.2 Early Creolist Fieldwork 78
3.6.1.3 Early Phonetic and Phonological Fieldwork 78
3.6.1.4 Early Dialectological Fieldwork 79
3.6.2 Fieldwork During the Generative Paradigm 79
3.6.3 Lessons from This Section 81
3.7 Concluding Thoughts 82
3.7.1 The Role of Africanist Reflection in the History of Linguistic Fieldwork 82
3.7.2 The Role of Recent Awareness of Word-Wide Language Endangerment on Fieldwork 83
3.8 Lessons from This Chapter 83
References 84
Chapter 4: Choosing a Language 97
4.1 Another Outsider Chooses a Language for the Fieldworker 97
4.2 The Language Community Chooses the Fieldworker 98
4.3 The Fieldworker Chooses the Language 98
4.3.1 Criteria Influencing Language Choice 99
4.3.1.1 Linguistic Diversity and/or Conservativeness 100
4.3.1.2 Political Expediency 101
4.3.1.3 Logistical Expediency 101
4.3.1.4 Interpersonal Expediency 102
4.3.1.5 Personal Expediency 102
4.3.2 Resources Influencing Language Choice 103
4.3.2.1 Handbooks 104
4.3.2.2 Surveys 104
4.3.2.3 Bibliographies 106
4.3.2.4 Atlases and Maps 106
4.3.2.5 Specialized Journals 107
References 107
Chapter 5: Field Preparation: Philological, Practical, and Psychological 111
5.1 Introduction 111
5.2 Philological Preparation 111
5.2.1 Why Philological Preparation Matters 112
5.2.2 Advice on Philological Work 113
5.2.2.1 The Basic Rules 113
5.2.2.2 Advice Regarding Historical Linguistics 114
5.2.2.3 Advice Regarding Editions and Studies of Older Texts 115
5.2.2.4 Advice Regarding Lexical Materials and Dictionaries 116
5.2.2.5 Advice Regarding Grammars 117
5.2.2.6 Advice on Re-eliciting on the Basis of Older Sources 117
5.2.2.7 Advice Regarding Language Revitalization 119
5.2.3 Conclusions 119
5.3 Linguistic, Historical, Sociopolitical, and Cultural Preparation 120
5.4 Preparing to Learn a New Language and Script 122
5.5 Practical Preparation 124
5.5.1 Applying for Funding 124
5.5.2 Things to Take 127
5.5.2.1 Equipment 128
The Physical Environment 129
The Social Environment 130
The Speech Event 130
5.5.2.2 Travel Checklist 133
5.5.2.3 Travel Documents 135
5.6 Psychological Preparation 136
5.7 Preparing for Emergencies 139
5.8 Permissions 140
5.8.1 Central and Local Governments 140
5.8.2 Tribal or Cultural Councils 142
5.8.3 Gatekeepers 144
5.8.4 Home Institutions and Internal Review Boards 145
5.9 Conclusion 149
References 149
Chapter 6: Fieldwork Ethics: The Rights and Responsibilities of the Fieldworker 156
6.1 Introduction 156
6.2 Documentation 156
6.3 Responsibility for Speakers: Advocating, Empowering, Mobilizing 158
6.4 Responsibility for Students 162
6.5 Honesty in Research 162
6.6 Data Attribution and Ownership 164
6.7 Rights and Responsibilities Regarding Access to Data 166
6.8 Unintended Consequences of Fieldwork 169
6.9 Christian Evangelism and Fieldwork 170
6.10 Personal Behavior 172
6.11 Conclusion 174
References 174
Chapter 7: Native Speakers and Fieldworkers 177
7.1 Introduction 177
7.2 Leads 177
7.3 Timing 178
7.4 Selection Based on the Role of the Native Speaker 178
7.5 Selection Based on Speaker Characteristics 184
7.5.1 Attitudes Towards Language 184
7.5.2 Physical Condition and Age 185
7.5.3 Gender 186
7.5.4 Location 187
7.5.5 Education and Literacy 188
7.5.6 Personality Traits 189
7.5.7 Talent as Consultant 190
7.5.8 Language Proficiency 192
7.5.9 Availability 195
7.5.10 Objectives 195
7.6 Number of Consultants 196
7.6.1 Linguistic Competence and Language Use 196
7.6.2 Practical Considerations 197
7.6.3 Group Dynamics 198
7.7 Collective Fieldwork 199
7.8 Group Participatory Research 200
7.9 Long-Distance Consultants 202
7.10 Linguist Native Speaker 202
7.11 Third Party Interpretation 202
7.12 Payment and Gifts 203
7.13 Keeping Track of Consultants 205
7.14 Factors Influencing Consultant/Fieldworker Rapport 207
References 208
Chapter 8: Planning Sessions, Note Taking, and Data Management 212
8.1 Introduction 212
8.2 Meeting Speakers, Selecting a Site 212
8.3 Anatomy of a Linguistic Fieldwork Session 213
8.3.1 Warm-up 213
8.3.2 Task Selection 214
8.3.3 What to Record in a Session 216
8.3.4 How to Close a Session 217
8.4 Interviewing Techniques 219
8.4.1 Speech Acts in the Interview 219
8.4.2 Expectations and Demands 220
8.4.3 Evaluating Native Speaker Responses 220
8.4.4 Reacting to Native Speaker Responses 223
8.4.5 Maintaining Native Speaker Interest 224
8.4.6 Maintaining Roles During the Session 225
8.5 Note-Taking 226
8.6 Record-Keeping 230
8.6.1 Keeping Track of Audio Files and Associated Metadata 231
8.6.2 Keeping Track of Field Notes and Associated Metadata 233
8.7 Transfer of Data to Database 234
8.8 Transfer from Database to Archive 237
8.9 Keeping Track of Finances 238
References 239
Chapter 9: Lexicography in Fieldwork 241
9.1 Introduction 241
9.2 Wordlist Elicitation 242
9.2.1 Using a Basic Wordlist 243
9.2.1.1 Picture Prompts 243
9.2.1.2 Compiling an Expanded Wordlist 245
9.2.1.3 Texts 245
9.2.1.4 Dialect Surveys 248
9.2.2 Organizing Lexical Collections 248
9.2.3 Methods for Word Elicitation, Recording, Cataloging, and Checking 250
9.2.3.1 Interviewing Techniques 250
9.2.3.2 Recording Techniques 253
9.2.3.3 Techniques for Cataloging Lexical Data 255
9.2.4 Database Management and Lexicography 256
9.3 Bilingual Dictionaries 257
References 259
Chapter 10: Phonetic and Phonological Fieldwork 264
10.1 Preparing for Phonetic Fieldwork 264
10.2 Organizing Word Lists and Short Phrases 265
10.3 Recording Word Lists and Short Phrases 266
10.4 Finding Appropriate Consultants for Phonetic Fieldwork 267
10.5 Requirements of the Native Speaker 268
10.6 Transcription 268
10.7 Phonetic and Phonological Analysis 270
10.7.1 Collecting Minimal Pairs If Possible 271
10.7.2 Comparing Like Sounds in Various Phonetic Environments 272
10.7.3 Formulating Hypothesis, Preparing Questions 273
10.7.4 Accessing Native Speaker Input 274
10.7.4.1 Checking Transcriptions 274
10.7.4.2 Checking Hypotheses 276
Syllable Prompts 277
Substitution Tasks 277
Substitution with Rhyming 278
10.8 Suprasegmentals 278
10.8.1 Fast Speech 278
10.8.2 Syllables and Phonotactic Constraints 279
10.8.3 Stress 279
10.8.4 Tone 281
10.8.4.1 Selection of Consultants 281
10.8.4.2 Frames 282
10.8.4.3 Transcription 283
10.8.4.4 Confirmation 283
10.8.5 Intonation 286
10.9 Conclusion 289
References 289
Chapter 11: What to Expect in Morphosyntactic Typology and Terminology 292
11.1 Introduction 292
11.2 Grammatical Typology and Terminology 293
11.2.1 Preparatory Reading for Grammatical Fieldwork 293
11.2.1.1 Typological Surveys and Manuals 293
11.2.1.2 Descriptive Grammars 295
11.2.1.3 Other Resources 300
11.2.2 Formal Marking Systems 301
11.2.2.1 Head Versus Dependent Marking, or Locus 301
11.2.2.2 Inverse Marking 302
11.2.2.3 Switch Reference Marking 302
11.2.3 Lexical and Grammatical Categories 302
11.2.3.1 Lexical Categories 303
Nouns and Verbs 304
Nouns 305
Verbs 305
Adjectives and Adverbs 305
Adjectives 306
Adverbs 306
Noun Adjuncts 306
Verb Adjuncts 307
Conjunctions 307
Pro-forms 307
Words That Cut Across Lexical Categories 307
The “Other” or Residue Category 308
11.2.3.2 Grammatical Categories 309
Grammatical Categories Characteristic of Noun Phrases 309
Semantic Roles 309
Pragmatically Marked Status 310
Case 311
Possession 311
Number 312
Noun Class or Gender 312
Noun Classification 313
Deixis 313
Grammatical Categories Characteristic of Verb Phrases 314
Tense 314
Aspect 315
Mood/Mode/Modality 316
Voice 316
Valence or Valency 317
Polarity 318
Control/Noncontrol 318
Subject Person and Number 319
Object Person and Number 320
Associated Motion 320
Grammatical Categories Characteristic of Clauses or Sentences 320
Validationality 321
Evidentiality 321
Mirativity 321
Polarity 322
Speech Act Distinctions 322
11.3 Morphological Typology and Terminology 323
11.3.1 Preparatory Reading for Morphological Fieldwork 323
11.3.2 Formal Morphological Typology 324
11.3.3 Terminological Issues in Morphology 324
11.3.3.1 Complex Terminological Issues in Morphology 325
Word 325
Morpheme 326
Stem, Root, Radical, Theme, and Base 326
11.3.3.2 Formal Morphological Terminology 327
Concatenative Morphology 328
Nonconcatenative Morphology 328
11.3.3.3 Functional Morphological Terminology 329
Inflectional and Derivational Morphology 329
Derivational Morphology 330
Inflectional Morphology 332
Morphology That Is Neither Derivational nor Inflectional 334
Headedness in Morphology 334
Grammaticalization and Lexicalization 335
11.4 Syntactic Typology and Terminology 336
11.4.1 Preparatory Reading for Syntactic Fieldwork 336
11.4.2 Theories of Syntax 337
11.4.3 Ordering, Transforming, and Combining 340
11.4.4 Constituents, Constructions, and Hierarchical Structure 341
11.4.4.1 Clauses 343
11.4.4.2 Noun Phrases 343
11.4.4.3 Verb Phrases or Verbal Predicates 344
11.4.4.4 Verbless Predicate Phrases 344
11.4.5 Headedness and Dependency 345
11.4.6 Modularity 349
11.4.7 Syntactic Mechanisms 349
11.4.8 Fuzziness, Clines, and Grammatical Hierarchies 351
11.5 Conclusions 353
References 355
Chapter 12: Grammar Gathering Techniques 370
12.1 Introduction 370
12.1.1 Three Questions on Grammar Gathering 371
12.1.1.1 Theory-Driven or Data-Driven Data Gathering 371
12.1.1.2 Directionality in Data Gathering 372
12.1.1.3 What Data Are Worth Collecting? 373
12.1.2 Terminology and Classification 373
12.2 Morphosyntax Gathering Techniques 374
12.2.1 Schedule-Controlled Elicitation 374
12.2.1.1 Analytical Questionnaires 375
12.2.1.2 Translation Questionnaires 376
12.2.1.3 Survey of Analytical and Translation Questionnaires 377
12.2.2 Analysis-Controlled Elicitation 380
12.2.2.1 Target Language Interrogation Elicitation (Easy) 381
12.2.2.2 Stimulus-Driven Elicitation 381
Prop-Driven Elicitation (Easy) 381
Pictorial Stimulus-Driven Elicitation (Medium Difficulty) 382
12.2.2.3 Target Language Manipulation Elicitation 383
Word-List Based Elicitation (Easy) 384
Paradigmatic Substitution Elicitation (Easy) 384
Fieldworker-Driven Paradigmatic Substitution Elicitation (Medium difficulty) 385
Syntagmatic Elicitation (Easy) 385
Transformational Elicitation (Medium Difficulty) 386
Fieldworker-Driven Transformational Elicitation (Difficult) 386
Corrective Elicitation (Difficult) 386
12.2.2.4 Target Language Translation Elicitation (Medium Difficulty) 386
12.2.2.5 Target Language Construction and Introspective Judgment Elicitation (Perilous) 387
12.2.2.6 Reverse Translation Elicitation (Perilous) 390
12.2.2.7 Review Elicitation (Medium Difficulty to Perilous) 391
12.2.2.8 Ancillary Elicitation (Easy to Difficult) 392
12.2.2.9 Covert Elicitation (Easy to Perilous) 392
12.2.2.10 Meta-Elicitation (Difficult to Perilous) 394
12.3 Morphology Gathering Techniques 394
12.3.1 Schedule-Controlled Elicitation for Morphology 395
12.3.2 Analysis-Controlled Elicitation for Morphology 397
12.3.2.1 Paradigm-Filling Elicitation 397
12.3.2.2 Eliciting Bound and Free Morphemes 398
12.3.2.3 Eliciting Stems and Roots 401
12.3.2.4 Eliciting Noun and Adjective Morphology 402
12.3.2.5 Eliciting Verb Morphology 403
12.3.3 An Illustration of Morphological Elicitation from Athabascan 405
12.4 Syntax Gathering Techniques 408
12.4.1 Schedule-Controlled Elicitation for Syntax 409
12.4.2 Analysis-Controlled Elicitation for Syntax 409
12.4.2.1 Target Language Manipulation in Syntax 410
Word Movement Elicitation 410
Sentence Combination Elicitation 410
Intonational or Stress Elicitation 411
12.4.2.2 Target Language Translation in Syntax 411
12.4.2.3 Target Language Construction and Introspective Judgments in Syntax 412
12.4.2.4 Reverse Translation in Syntax 414
12.4.2.5 Ancillary Elicitation in Syntax 415
12.5 Some Concluding Remarks 416
References 417
Chapter 13: Semantics, Pragmatics, and Text Collection 426
13.1 Introduction 426
13.2 Semantics and Fieldwork 426
13.2.1 Lexical Semantics 426
13.2.2 Sentence Meaning 428
13.3 Pragmatics and Fieldwork 429
13.3.1 Deixis 429
13.3.2 Conversational Implicature 430
13.3.3 Presupposition 431
13.3.4 Speech Acts 433
13.3.5 Conversation Structure 434
13.4 Texts 435
13.4.1 Advantages of Text Collection 436
13.4.2 Types of Texts 438
13.4.3 Obtaining Texts 440
13.4.4 Recording and Analyzing Narratives 444
13.4.4.1 Recording 444
13.4.4.2 Video Recordings 445
13.4.4.3 Rough Translation 446
13.4.4.4 Transcribing 447
13.4.4.5 Word-for-Word Translation 449
13.4.4.6 Constituent analysis and Free Translation 449
13.4.4.7 Morphological Analysis 452
13.4.4.8 The Final Product 453
13.4.5 Recording and Analyzing Conversations 454
13.4.6 Working with an Existing Corpus of Texts 455
References 457
Index 462