Ubiquitous Computing (eBook)

Dr. Florian Resatsch completed his doctoral thesis under the supervision of Prof. Dr. Helmut Krcmar at the Chair of Information Systems at the Technische Universität München (TUM). He is the managing partner and co-founder of a company focused on object and location-based information services.

Foreword 6
Acknowledgements 7
Abstract 9
Contents 11
List of Figures 17
List of Tables 20
Abbreviations 22
1 Introduction 25
1.1 Field of Investigation 26
1.2 Research Problem 28
1.3 Research Questions and Objectives 31
1.4 Methodology 32
1.5 Thesis Structure 36
2 Theoretical Framework 39
2.1 Ubiquitous Computing 39
2.1.1 Definition 39
2.1.2 Building Blocks 41
2.1.3 Technologies 42
2.1.4 Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) 44
2.1.4.1 Standards 44
2.1.4.2 RFID Tag and Data 45
2.1.4.3 Capacity 46
2.1.4.4 Shapes and Form 46
2.1.4.5 Frequencies 47
2.1.4.6 Transmission 48
2.1.4.7 Readers and Connectivity 49
2.1.4.8 Cost 50
2.1.5 Near Field Communication (NFC) 51
2.1.5.1 NFC Forum Technology Architecture 51
2.1.5.2 Mobile NFC Architecture 53
2.1.5.3 Available NFC Phones 54
2.1.5.4 Developing with NFC 56
2.1.5.5 NFC Tags 57
2.1.6 RFID and NFC Information Systems 58
2.2 Ubiquitous Computing Technologies and the Consumer 59
2.2.1 Categorization of Applications Using the Example of RFID 59
2.2.2 User Awareness and Perception of RFID 61
2.3 The Importance of Prototyping 68
3 Human Computer Interaction and Technology Acceptance 70
3.1 Human Computer Interaction 70
3.1.1 Human Aspects 71
3.1.1.1 The End-User 71
3.1.1.2 Behavioral Constraints of the End-User 72
3.1.1.3 Everyday Tasks 73
3.1.1.4 Cognitive Limitations 74
3.1.1.5 Context-Sensitive Applications to Limit the Cognitive Load 76
3.1.2 Human Computer Interface 77
3.1.2.1 Multimodal Interaction 78
3.1.2.2 Haptic Interfaces 79
3.1.2.3 Affordances 81
3.1.2.4 The Interaction Design of an Everyday Task 81
3.1.2.5 Interaction between Physical Objects and Mobile Devices 82
3.1.3 Summary: Preliminary Set of Requirements 84
3.2 Technology Acceptance 87
3.2.1 Technology Acceptance Evaluation in Ubiquitous Computing 87
3.2.2 Innovation Adoption 88
3.2.3 Technology Acceptance Models 92
3.2.3.1 Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) 93
3.2.3.2 Theory of Reasoned Action / Theory of Planned Behaviour (TRA/TPB) 93
3.2.3.3 Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) 94
3.2.3.4 Task-Technology Fit (TTF) 95
3.2.3.5 Motivational Model (MM) 96
3.2.3.6 Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) 96
3.2.3.7 Critical Assessment of Acceptance Models 106
3.2.4 Summary: Technology Acceptance and Implications 107
4 Designing an Ubiquitous Computing Application Development and Evaluation Process Model (UCAN) 109
4.1 Ubiquitous Computing Application Development 109
4.1.1 Determining Initial Requirements 110
4.1.2 Challenges 112
4.1.3 End-User Integration 113
4.1.4 Prototypes 114
4.1.5 System Engineering and Prototyping 116
4.2 Evaluating Ubicomp Applications 117
4.2.1 Challenges 117
4.2.2 Evaluating Prototypes 118
4.2.3 Evaluation in Specific Prototype Phases 120
4.3 A-priori: The Ubiquitous Computing Application Development and Evaluation Process Model (UCAN) 125
4.4 Selection of Case Studies 126
4.4.1 NFC Applications 126
4.4.1.1 Technology Push 127
4.4.1.2 Market Pull 127
4.4.2 Selection Criteria 127
4.4.3 Motivation 129
4.4.4 Conducting the Case Studies 130
4.4.5 Overview 131
5 From Initial Idea to Low-Fidelity Prototype: Easymeeting and the Mobile Prosumer 133
5.1 Easymeeting: Meeting Room Management System 133
5.1.1 Vision of a Motivating Application 134
5.1.2 General Problem: Ubiquitous Computing in a Work Environment 135
5.1.3 Initial Idea 135
5.1.4 Evaluation of the Initial Idea 135
5.1.5 Refined Idea 136
5.1.6 Low-Fidelityy Prototypee 139
5.1.7 Evaluation of the Low-Fidelity Prototype 142
5.1.7.1 Research Methodology 142
5.1.7.2 Sample 143
5.1.7.3 Data Collection and Data Coding 143
5.1.8 Evaluation Results of the Low-Fidelity Prototype 144
5.1.8.1 Evaluation Results—Qualitative with ”Talking out Loud” Method 144
5.1.8.2 Evaluation Results—Quantitative According UTAUT Items 145
5.1.9 Refined Use Case 148
5.1.10 Summary of the Results—Easymeeting 150
5.1.10.1 Improve and Theorize about the Developed Process Model (UCAN) 150
5.1.10.2 Preparing Design Guidelines 152
5.2 Mobile Prosumer: Smart Product Information System at the Point of Sale 154
5.2.1 Vision of a Motivating Application 156
5.2.2 General Problem: Smart Products and Information Services 156
5.2.2.1 Differences in Online and Offline Shopping 157
5.2.2.2 Smart Products—Bridging the Gap of Offline and Online Information 157
5.2.2.3 Demand for RFID-based Information Services at the Point of Sale 159
5.2.3 Initial Idea 160
5.2.4 Evaluation of the Initial Idea 161
5.2.5 Refined Idea 161
5.2.6 Low-Fidelity Prototype 162
5.2.7 Evaluation of the Low-Fidelity Prototype 163
5.2.7.1 Research Methodology 164
5.2.7.2 Sample 165
5.2.7.3 Data Collection and Data Coding 166
5.2.8 General Evaluation Results 166
5.2.8.1 Experiences and Attitude towards Shopping 166
5.2.8.2 Evaluating the Initial Idea—Paper-based Concept Test 167
5.2.9 Low-Fidelity Prototype Evaluation 169
5.2.9.1 Low-Fidelity Prototype Evaluation—Focus Group 1: Consumers 169
5.2.9.2 Low-Fidelity Prototype Evaluation—Focus Group 2: Sales Assistants 169
5.2.10 Refined Use Case 170
5.2.11 Summary of the Results – Mobile Prosumer 173
5.2.11.1 Improve and Theorize about the Developed Process Model (UCAN) 173
5.2.11.2 Preparing Design Guidelines 175
6 Working Prototype: An NFC-based Mobile Phone Ticketing System 177
6.1 From the Initial Idea to the Working Prototype 178
6.2 Working Prototype 181
6.3 Evaluation of the Working Prototype 183
6.3.1 Sample 185
6.3.2 Preparing the Research Design 186
6.3.2.1 Questionnaire Concept 186
6.3.2.2 Adaptation of Original UTAUT Constructs 186
6.3.2.3 Summary of Items and Constructs 195
6.3.2.4 Determining Measurement Points 196
6.3.3 Data Collection 197
6.3.4 Data Processing 198
6.4 Data Analysis and Interpretation 199
6.4.1 Data Analysis 199
6.4.2 PLS Analysis 200
6.4.3 Interpretation 205
6.4.3.1 Behavioural Intention 205
6.4.3.2 Performance Expectancy 208
6.4.3.3 Effort Expectancy 209
6.4.3.4 Social Influence 209
6.4.3.5 Attitude towards Using Technology 210
6.4.3.6 Self Efficacy 210
6.4.3.7 Anxiety 210
6.4.3.8 Facilitating Conditions 210
6.4.4 PLS Multi-Group Comparisons 211
6.4.5 Further Results 211
6.4.6 Direct Limitations 213
6.5 Summary of the Results 215
6.5.1 Improve and Theorize about the Developed Process Model (UCAN) 215
6.5.1.1 Benefits of the Process 215
6.5.1.2 Limitations of the Proces 216
6.5.1.3 Evaluation of the Research Instrument: Quantitative Survey 216
6.5.2 Preparing Design Guidelines 217
7 Conclusion, Limitations, and Future Research 219
7.1 Conclusion 219
7.1.1 Evaluation of the Case Studies 220
7.1.2 Technological Comparison 221
7.1.3 Improving UCAN 223
7.1.4 Design Guidelines for NFC-based Ubiquitous Computing Applications 229
7.1.5 Contributions of the Analysis 236
7.2 Limitations and Future Research 239
7.2.1 Limitations 239
7.2.2 Future Research 240
Bibliography 242
Appendix 259

3 Human Computer Interaction and Technology Acceptance (p. 46-47)

The focus of this chapter is to state the basic requirements of NFC-based applications relative to human-computer interaction theory (Chapter 3.1). It also seeks to further integrate the technology acceptance models to be applied into the Ubicomp setting (Chapter 3.2).

3.1 Human Computer Interaction

The connection between human computer interaction (HCI) and Ubicomp was discussed from Ubicomp’s early stages up to today (Abowd 1996; Abowd/Atkeson/Essa 1998; Abowd et al. 1998; Abowd/Mynatt/Rodden 2002). Abowd also discussed the effects of prototypes in the area of Ubicomp to facilitate technology diffusion (Abowd et al. 2005). Interfaces of various kinds were discussed intensely in Ubicomp literature—especially because the use of haptic elements, such as RFID chips, changes the established forms of interaction familiar from desktop computers (Henseler 2001; Michelis et al. 2005; Poupyrev/Okabe/Maruyama 2004; Ishii/Ullmer 1997; Blackler/Popovic/Mahar 2003; Öquist 2006; Thevenin/Coutaz 1999; Ballagas et al. 2003; Tan 2000; Shneiderman 1992; Raskin 2000; Mantyjarvi et al. 2006; Välkkynen et al. 2003).

Only few of the known literature approaches discuss the effects of everyday activities and principles associated with routine tasks, although these effects were part of the Ubicomp vision and are relevant for building systems that will be accepted by users (Mattern 2003b, 2003c, 2005b; McCullough 2004; Weiser 1993).

Human beings have one thing in common: an everyday life and the range of actions that life encompasses. The Ubicomp definition presented included applications within the everyday action range of human beings (see section 2.1.1). This everyday life is determined by several factors that loop back to the development of—and the interaction with—Ubicomp applications.

Ubicomp use is quite different from desktop computer use. Daily life centers around activity spaces (Golledge/Stimson 1997) within specific contexts. With a link from the virtual into the physical world, an interaction design off the desktop becomes essential (McCullough 2004; Norman 1988). Ubicomp applications should function only when we want them to and in a way in which we do not need to know how they function.

These “information appliances” (Norman 1999b, 53) allow people to carry out tasks without needing to be aware of the computers that are involved (McCullough 2004). Simplicity, as already stated, is the primary motivation driving the design of information appliances. Design the tool to fit so well that it becomes a part of the task (Norman 1999b, 53). This design credo describes a way of creating computers so that they are invisible to us perceptually, i.e. so that we are not conscious of them.

Human Computer Interaction (HCI) is defined as “a discipline concerned with the design, evaluation and implementation of interactive computing systems for human use and with the study of major phenomena surrounding them.” The focus is “specifically on interaction between one or more humans and one or more computational machines”, which together form an adequate context for Ubicomp (Hewett et al. 1992). HCI has two sides, both the machine and the human side, connected via an interface. An interface can exist in different ways. Raskin gives a broad definition: “The way that you accomplish tasks with a product—what you do and how it responds” (Raskin 2000).