Anthropogenic Geomorphology (eBook)

József Szabó is Professor Emeritus, Vice-President of the Hungarian Geographical Society, Corresponding Member of the CERG - Strasbourg and a Member of the International Landslide Research Group - Palo Alto, California. His research fields are mass movements and other geomorphological processes, land evaluation, anthropogenic geomorphology, geomorphological hazards and history of physical geography. Lóránt Dávid is a college professor and Head of the Department of Tourism and Regional Development at Károly Róbert College. He has longstanding teaching and research experience in the fields of anthropogenic geomorphology, environmental protection, tourism and regional development, and has worked as an expert in a number of government programs. Dénes Lóczy is an associate professor, Head of the Department of Physical Geography and Deputy Director of the Institute of Geography at Janus Pannonius University, Pécs. From 2001 till 2005 he was Secretary of the International Association of Geomorphologists (IAG/AIG). His research interests are land evaluation, land use studies, floodplain geomorphology and environmental protection.

Foreword 5
Acknowledgements 7
Contents 8
Contributors 10
Part I Introduction 12
1 Anthropogenic Geomorphology: Subject and System 13
1.1 Subject 13
1.2 System 16
References 19
Part II Anthropogenic Geomorphology and Related Disciplines 21
2 Human Impact in a Systems Approach 22
2.1 Some Characteristics of Physical Systems 22
2.2 General Model of Material and Energy Cycles and Its Relevance for Geomorphology 24
2.3 The Impact of Human Activities on Geomorphologic Processes 26
2.4 Indirect Human Impacts on Physical Systems 29
References 32
3 Anthropogenic Geomorphology in Environmental Management 34
3.1 Introduction 34
3.2 Applied or Environmental Geomorphology 35
3.3 Resource Exploration and Geomorphology 36
3.4 Geomorphological Hazards 37
3.5 Prediction of Geomorphic Evolution 40
3.6 Protecting Geomorphosites 40
3.7 Land Reclamation and Restoration 41
3.8 Perspectives 42
3.9 Case Study 1: Water Transfer Schemes in China 42
3.10 Case Study 2: Geomorphological Information in Aggregate Exploration 43
3.11 Case Study 3: Human-Induced Earthquakes 44
References 45
4 Anthropogenic Geomorphology and Landscape Ecology 47
4.1 Landscape Ecology as a Discipline 47
4.2 Geomorphology and Landscape Ecology 48
4.3 Stages of Intensifying Human Impact on the Landscape 51
4.3.1 Natural Landscapes 51
4.3.2 Slightly Modified Landscapes 52
4.3.3 Semi-natural Landscapes 54
4.3.4 Landscapes Removed From and Alien to Natural Conditions 56
4.3.5 Anthropogenic Landscapes 57
4.4 Summary 59
References 59
Part III Impacts of Various Human Activities on the Landscape 61
5 Agriculture: Crop Cultivation and Horticulture 62
5.1 A Historical Review of Crop Cultivation 62
5.2 The Impact of Crop Cultivation and Horticulture on the Surface 65
5.2.1 Influencing Factors 65
5.2.2 Human Interventions and Human-induced Processes and Features 66
5.2.3 Wind Erosion and Its Impacts 69
5.2.4 Impacts of Water Management on Agricultural Land 71
5.2.5 Loess Landscapes 72
5.3 Conclusions 73
References 74
6 Agriculture: Grazing Lands and Other Grasslands 75
6.1 Introduction 75
6.2 Anthropogenic Geomorphological Problems of the Sahel 76
6.2.1 Concept and Physical Geography of the Sahel 76
6.2.2 The Problem of the Sahel -- Factors of Desertification 77
6.2.2.1 Physical Factors 77
6.2.2.2 Human Impact -- Anthropogenic Geomorphologic Changes 78
6.2.3 Solution Opportunities 79
6.3 Anthropogenic Geomorphological Problems of Hungarys Grasslands 79
6.3.1 The Distribution and Occurrence of Grasslands in Hungary 80
6.3.2 Grassland Classification 80
6.3.3 Geomorphological Consequences of Grassland Management 82
6.3.3.1 Water Regulation of Grasslands 82
6.3.3.2 Cultivation Techniques of Grasslands 85
6.4 Summary 87
References 87
7 Agriculture: Cultivation on Slopes 89
References 99
8 Agriculture: Deforestation 101
8.1 Introduction: The Importance of Forests 101
8.2 History of Woodlands in the Carpathian Basin 107
8.3 Case Study: Geomorphological Impacts of Deforestation Through the Example of the Medves Region 107
8.3.1 A Historical Review of Agricultural Landscape Alterations 108
8.3.2 Changes in the Forested Areas in the Medves Region 110
8.3.3 Vegetation Related Environmental Conflicts 115
References 116
9 Quarrying and Other Minerals 119
9.1 Introduction 119
9.2 Stone Quarrying 121
9.2.1 Characterising and Classifying the Landforms of Quarrying 121
9.2.2 Excavated (negative) Forms 123
9.2.3 Accumulated (Positive) Forms 125
9.2.4 Planation Activity 126
9.3 Other Raw Materials for Construction 126
9.4 Other Minerals 129
9.5 Some Problems of Mine Opening and After-use 132
9.5.1 Case Studies 133
9.5.1.1 Rehabilitation of Abandoned Mining Grounds in Cornwall (England) 133
9.5.1.2 Bluewater Shopping Centre 133
9.5.1.3 TokajóPatkó Quarry 134
9.5.1.4 Sculpture Park in the Hársas Hill of Nagyharsány 135
References 135
10 Mining: Extraction of Fossil Fuels 137
10.1 Introduction 137
10.2 Surface Alterations Caused by Opencast Coal Mining 138
10.3 Geomorphic Processes Related to Deep Mining of Coal 140
10.3.1 Landforms of Mine Workings and Subsidence Areas 140
10.3.2 Surface Evolution of Waste Tips 147
10.3.2.1 Case Study 1: The Aberfan Slump 150
10.3.2.2 Case Study 2: The ádám Valley Waste Tip 151
10.3.3 Maturity of Waste Tips 153
10.4 Surface Modification by the Extraction of Fluid Fuels 154
10.5 The Geomorphological Cycle of Mining Landscapes 156
10.6 Case Study: Uranium ore Mining in the Mecsek Mountains 157
10.6.0 Dónes Lóczy 157
References 159
11 Water Management 161
11.1 Introduction 161
11.2 Geomorphologic Impacts of River Regulations and Flood Control 163
11.2.1 Relevant Landforms 163
11.2.1.1 Case Study 1: Geomorphologic Impacts of the Regulation of the Tisza River 167
11.2.2 Changes in Fluvial Action 168
11.2.3 Connections between Water Regulation and Mass Movements 172
11.2.3.1 Impacts on Mass Movements 172
11.2.3.2 Water Management and Ground Subsidence 175
11.2.4 Water Construction Works and Seismicity 177
11.3 Coastal Interventions and Its Consequences 179
11.3.1 Coastal Defence 179
11.3.2 Land Reclamation for Economic Purposes 181
11.3.2.1 Land Reclamation on the North Sea Coast 181
References 183
12 Urban Development and Anthropogenic Geomorphology 184
12.1 Introduction 184
12.2 Geomorphic Impacts of Urbanization 185
12.3 Settlement Infrastructure and Topographic Transformation 186
12.3.1 Development and Terrain Transformation as a Function of Slope Angle 187
12.4 The Principles of Urban Landscaping, Its Planning and Implementation 188
12.4.1 The Need for Landscaping 188
12.4.2 Macro- and Micro-scale Landscaping 188
12.4.3 Planning and Implementation Objectives 189
12.4.4 Typical Anthropogenic Landforms in Urban Areas 189
12.4.5 Secondary Impacts of Surface Transformation at Settlements 191
References 191
13 Transportation and Industry 193
13.1 Transport Infrastructure Construction and Industrial Development 193
13.2 Transport and Industrial Infrastructure Until the Modern Age 194
13.2.1 Transport Routes 194
13.2.2 The Early Impacts of Industry 198
13.3 The Impacts of Transportation on the Surface in the Modern Age 202
13.3.1 Construction of Transport Network: Direct Impacts 202
13.3.2 Indirect Impacts 209
13.3.2.1 Cutting Through Impermeable Layers 210
13.3.2.2 Changes in Runoff 211
13.3.2.3 The 'Waterfall Effect' 211
13.3.3 Modern Industrial Development 213
13.3.4 Sludge Reservoirs 213
13.3.5 Slag Cones and Fly-ash Reservoirs 214
13.3.6 Cooling Ponds 214
13.3.7 Industrial Parks, Shopping Centres 215
13.3.8 Environmental Impacts of Industrial Waste Disposal 215
13.4 Summary 216
References 218
14 Military Activities: Warfare and Defence 220
14.1 Classification of Landforms of Warfare Origin 220
14.2 The largest Defence Line: The Great Wall of China 222
14.3 Defence in the Roman Empire: Limes and Earth Ramparts 223
14.4 Medieval Ramparts and Fortresses 224
14.5 Earthworks in the Modern Age 225
14.6 Anthropogenic Geomorphological Impacts of World War I 229
14.7 Landscape Transformation by Warfare in World War II and the Preceding years 231
14.8 Geomorphological Impacts of Modern Wars 232
References 233
15 The Impact of Tourism and Sports Activities 235
15.1 Introduction 235
15.2 The Impact of Leisure-Time Travels and Sports on Relief 237
15.2.1 Impacts from Winter Sports 237
15.2.2 Impacts Near Water 239
15.2.3 Impacts of Golf Courses 242
15.2.4 Impacts Related to Motorsports 244
15.2.5 Impacts of Green Areas 244
15.2.6 Recreation Activities Inducing or Increasing Erosion 245
15.2.7 Damage to Landforms, Rock Collecting 252
15.3 Conclusions 252
References 254
16 Impacts in Extreme Environments 257
16.1 Introduction 257
16.2 Cold Environments 258
16.2.1 Station Construction 259
16.2.2 Transportation 259
16.2.3 Water Supply 260
16.3 Arid Environments 260
16.3.1 Transportation and Dwelling 260
16.3.2 Water Drainage 261
16.3.3 Water Supply 261
16.3.4 Quarrying 262
16.3.5 Warfare 263
16.3.6 Sacral Activities 263
16.4 Cold and Arid Regions 264
16.4.1 Dwelling 265
16.4.2 Transportation 266
16.4.3 Mining ( Sulphur, Rock Salt, Ores ) 266
16.4.4 Science 267
16.5 High Mountains 267
16.5.1 Transportation 268
16.5.2 ( Opencast ) Mining 270
16.5.3 Sport ( Ski Tourism ) 270
16.5.4 Science ( Astronomy, Meteorology ) 271
References 272
Part IV An Anthropogenic Geomorphological Synthesis 273
17 Nature and Extent of Human Geomorphological Impact A Review 274
17.1 Introduction 274
17.2 Estimating the Rate of Anthropogenic Geomorphological Processes 275
17.3 Socio-Economic Factors in Anthropogenic Geomorphology 279
17.3.1 Technical Progress 279
17.3.2 Population Growth 280
17.4 An Historic Approach to Anthropogenic Geomorphology 283
17.5 Estimating Potential Anthropogenic Geomorphological Impact 286
References 291
Index 293

"Chapter 4 Anthropogenic Geomorphology and Landscape Ecology (p. 39-40)

Péter Csorba

Abstract Since landscape ecology is the discipline of functionally studying natural factors and anthropogenic processes in light of the present and forecasted land-use tendencies, anthropogenic geomorphology easily fits in among the various fields of landscape ecology. The spatial distribution of human structures (builtup areas, roads, railways, channels and others) is always adjusted to topographic conditions.

To rank the intensity of anthropogenic impact on a qualitative range, so-called hemeroby levels have been established by German scientists.When assessing hemeroby, estimations are made for the degree of human geomorphic impact based on the rate of soil erosion, surface dissection or the abundance of terraces, escarpments and artificial excavational features.

At the highest level of human impact, in urban-industrial (or urban-technical) ecosystems, even remnant patches of semi-natural ecosystems seldom occur wedged into built-up areas and into linear infrastructural elements. The micro- and meso-elements of topography are often totally destroyed by terrain modification, such as levelling for development. Relying on anthropogenic geomorphology, landscape ecology can make significant practical contributions to landscape planning. Keywords Landscape ecology · Hemeroby · Landscapes · Cultivated landscapes

4.1 Landscape Ecology as a Discipline

Landscape geographical research, since the 1960s, has increasingly acquired an ecological approach (Leser 1991; Finke 1986; Farina 1998; Csorba 2003; Wu and Hobbs 2007). In its simplest form, it means that phenomena and processes are studied embedded in their environmental systems. Recently the denomination “landscape research of ecological approach” is used for this field of research. It is not much modified by the fact that the term “landscape ecology (or geoecology)” has become widespread in the international usage (Leser 1991; Huggett 1995).

Among the fundamental characteristics of landscape ecology, a practical approach should also be accentuated (Helming and Wiggering 2003; Wiens and Moss 2005). Landscape ecology research primarily aims at fulfilling social demands in a way they should have the least pressure on potential natural resources and hinder the satisfaction of other social demands to the least possible extent. Landscape ecology provides a scientific background to achieve reasonable landscape management and land-use compromises (Marsh 1997; Ingegnoli 2002; Jongman 2005). Landscape ecology, as a result of its roots in geography, also inherited the spatial approach of geography.

A decisive question is where the various forms of social activities could be accommodated at the lowest physical-economic-social conflicts. According to Carl Troll, the founder of landscape ecology as an independent discipline (1939), landscape ecology is “Raumökologie der Erdoberfläche”, i.e. the science of ecological processes on the Earth’s surface."