Impacts of the Covid-19 Pandemic

Nadav Morag is Professor of Security Studies and Chair of the Department of Security Studies at Sam Houston State University. He also serves on the faculty of the Center for Homeland Defense and Security (CHDS), Naval Postgraduate School. He is the author of Comparative Homeland Security: Global Lessons, 2nd Edition (Wiley and Sons, 2018) and has authored numerous articles and book chapters on terrorism, strategy and the Middle East.

Notes on Contributors xiii

Foreword xv

Preface xix

Section 1 Countries with a Focus on the Rule of Law and Legal Protections of Civil Liberties 1

1 The Netherlands: Dutch COVID-19 Policy Viewed from a Fundamental Rights Perspective 3
Adriaan J. Wierenga and Jorrit Westerhof

1.1 Introduction 3

1.2 Disaster Management in the Netherlands 4

1.2.1 Functional and General Chain of Command 4

1.2.2 The COVID-19 Crisis 5

1.3 The Public Health Act 2008 (Functional Chain of Command) 5

1.3.1 National Crisis Structure 6

1.3.2 Measures 7

1.4 Municipal Emergency Powers (General Chain of Command) 8

1.4.1 Areas of Tension 8

1.4.2 Debatable Limitations of Fundamental Rights 9

1.4.3 Democratic Control and Administrative Supervision 10

1.5 Interim COVID-19 Measures Act (Addition to the Functional Chain of Command) 11

1.5.1 Improvements and Shortcomings 12

1.5.2 Legitimate Limitation of Fundamental Rights 12

1.5.3 Stricter Democratic Control 13

1.6 National Emergency Law 14

1.6.1 Separate Implementation 15

1.6.2 Criticism 16

1.6.3 The Curfew Case 17

1.7 Conclusion 18

References 19

2 Emergencies, Executive Power, and Ireland’s Response to the Covid-19 Pandemic 23
Alan Greene

2.1 Introduction 23

2.2 Ireland’s Constitutional Emergency Framework 24

2.2.1 International Human Rights Law 26

2.3 Ireland’s Pandemic Response and Constitutional Constraints 27

2.3.1 Pandemic Rent Controls and Constitutional Constraints 28

2.3.2 Executive Supremacy and the COVID-19 Pandemic 29

2.4 Ireland’s Pandemic Response and Human Rights 31

2.4.1 The Pandemic and the Right to Liberty 31

2.4.1.1 Mandatory Hotel Quarantine 32

2.4.2 Quarantine and Detention at Home 34

2.5 Data Protection, Surveillance, and Discrimination Issues 36

2.5.1 Vaccination and Vaccine Passports 37

2.6 COVID-19 and the Rule of Law in Ireland 38

2.7 Conclusions 39

3 COVID-19: Legal Lessons Learned in Switzerland 41
Felix Uhlmann

3.1 Introduction 41

3.2 Legal Framework 41

3.2.1 Legal Framework before COVID-19 (Swiss Epidemics Act) 41

3.2.1.1 Scope and Goals 41

3.2.1.2 Normal, Particular, and Extraordinary Situations 42

3.2.1.3 Measures 44

3.2.2 Legal Framework Under COVID-19 45

3.2.2.1 First and SecondWave 45

3.2.2.2 Financial Aid 47

3.2.2.3 The Federal Council and Other Actors 48

3.3 Contact Tracing App 48

3.4 Fundamental Rights (Civil Liberties) 50

3.4.1 Restrictions on Daily Life 50

3.4.2 Vaccinations 52

3.5 Assessment 53

References 54

4 Not Dead Yet: Protest, Process, and Germany’s Constitutional Democracy Amid the Coronavirus Response 59
Carolyn Halladay

4.1 The FirstWave: So Far, So Good 60

4.2 Proportionality and its Discontents 65

4.3 Summer in the City 67

4.4 Is it an Emergency Yet? 71

4.5 Second Guessing the SecondWave 75

4.6 Happily Ever After? 77

5 The United Kingdom Legislative Response to Coronavirus: Shotgun or Machine Gun 79
Ronan Cormacain and Duncan Fairgrieve

5.1 Introduction 79

5.2 Reliance Upon Law 79

5.3 Nature of the Legal Framework 80

5.3.1 Machine Gun Legislative Response 80

5.3.2 Devolution and the Legislative Response 80

5.3.3 Overview of the Legislative Framework 81

5.3.4 Pre-existing Laws or New Laws 84

5.3.5 Use of Emergency/Urgency Powers and Procedures or Use of Regular Powers and Procedures 84

5.3.6 Sunset Clauses/Expiry Dates 86

5.4 Substance of the Legal Response 86

5.4.1 Restrictions on Individual Liberties 86

5.4.2 Travel Restrictions 87

5.4.3 Vaccination Policy 87

5.4.4 Track and Trace 90

5.4.5 Support Measures – Furlough Payments, no Evictions 90

5.5 Problems/Analysis of the Legal Response 91

5.5.1 Reliance upon Emergency Procedures and Processes to Make Law in a Rush 91

5.5.2 Lack of Effective Parliamentary Scrutiny 92

5.5.3 Conflation of Law with Guidance 93

5.5.4 Inaccessible and Unintelligible Legislation 94

5.5.5 Risk of Creep of Emergency Practices into Normal Lawmaking 95

5.5.6 Compliance with the Rules by Those in Power 96

5.6 Conclusion 96

Section 2 Countries making Extensive use of Emergency Laws and Securitization 99

6 The State of Exception and its Effects on Civil Liberties in Italy During the COVID-19 Crisis 101
Anna Malandrino, Margherita Paola Poto, and Elena Demichelis

6.1 Introduction 101

6.2 Defining the Elements of States of Exception (SoE) 103

6.2.1 States of Exception in the General Context 103

6.2.2 Italy 103

6.3 States of Exception During the Pandemic: Declaration, Implementation, and Effects 108

6.3.1 Establishing and Implementing the States of Exception 108

6.3.2 The Potential Effects of States of Exception on Civil Liberties 109

6.4 States of Exception and Containment Measures during the COVID-19 Pandemic in Italy: Regulatory Aspects 110

6.5 States of Exception and Containment Measures During the COVID-19 Pandemic in Italy: Implementation 112

6.6 The Effects of States of Exception Measures on Civil Liberties 113

6.7 Conclusions 116

References 116

7 Praise the Alarm: Spain’s Coronavirus Approach 121
Carolyn Halladay, Florina C. Matei, and Andres de Castro

7.1 Quien aprisa juzgó, despacio se arrepintió: The Early Days of COVID and the Spanish Response 123

7.2 Culpa no tiene, quien hace lo que debe: The FirstWave and the First Lockdown 125

7.3 Cada uno quiere justiciar, mas no por su casa: The SecondWave and the Second Lockdown 130

7.4 Con necesidad, no hay ley? States of Emergency in Spain and Beyond 133

7.5 Hasta que pruebes, no absuelvas ni condenes: COVID and the Law Amid Spanish Tensions 137

7.6 El fin veremos; hasta entonces no hablemos: Conclusion 139

8 Pandemic Pangs and Fangs: Romania’s Public Safety and Civil Liberties in the COVID-19 Era 141
Florina C. Matei

8.1 Legal Framework and Policy Approaches Vis-À-Vis Quarantine, Isolation, and Other Social Distancing Measures 141

8.2 Quarantine, Isolation, and Other Social Distancing Measures During the Covid-19 Pandemic 144

8.2.1 From a State of Emergency amidst a Political Crisis… 144

8.2.2 …To a State of Alert: Anachronistic Legislation Meets Ebbing and Flowing Restrictions 150

8.2.2.1 Vaccination Campaign: Needles for Fangs 153

8.2.3 Transparency During the Pandemic: Between Thought Police, Strategic “Mis” Communications, and Conspiracy Theories 154

8.2.3.1 Civil Society: A Tamed yet Clamorous Cerberus? 157

8.2.4 A “Plagued” Executive–Legislative–Judiciary Trifecta 159

8.3 Conclusion: Civil Liberties and Freedoms 161

9 Policymaking and Liberty Restrictions in the Covid-19 Crisis, the Case of France 165
Angelique Palle, Lisa Carayon, François Delerue, Florian Opillard, and Christelle Chidiac Disclaimer 165

9.1 Introduction 165

9.2 Policymaking and Liberty Restrictions in France During Covid-19 Crisis, Research Questions and Methodology 166

9.3 Regulation and Policymaking in France During Covid-19, Context and Background 167

9.4 “State of Emergency Related to the Sanitary Situation/Etat d’Urgence Sanitaire”: The Recourse to an Exceptional Legal Framework 169

9.5 The Involvement of the Armed Forces in France in the Covid-19 Crisis Management, Between Political Display and Response to the Crisis 170

9.6 Perception by the French Population of the Missions Performed by the Armed Forces and of the Nature of the Covid-19 Crisis 172

9.7 Analyzing Local and Regional Measures of Civil Liberties’s Restrictions in the Context of the “State of Emergency Related to the Sanitary Situation” (état d’urgence sanitaire), the Case of the Freedom of Movement throughout the First to the Second Confinement 173

9.8 Legitimizing Civil Liberties Restrictions and Shaping the Governance of Policymaking, Comparison of the Two Cities of Rennes and Nice 175

9.9 Conclusion 179

References 179

Section 3 Countries Focused on Population Monitoring and Restrictions 181

10 Policy Measures, Information Technology, and People’s Collective Behavior in Taiwan’s COVID-19 Response 183
Cheryl Lin, Pikuei Tu, Wendy E. Braund, Jewel Mullen, and Georges C. Benjamin

10.1 Introduction 183

10.2 A Snapshot of Taiwan 184

10.2.1 The Legal Framework Pertaining to Pandemic Response 184

10.2.1.1 Epidemic Control and Public Health Emergency 184

10.2.1.2 Personal Information 186

10.3 The Ominous Beginning of the Pandemic 186

10.3.1 Swift Responses Early On 187

10.4 Blocking Infection Importation and Local Transmission 188

10.4.1 Tightened Border Control 188

10.4.2 Rigorous Contact Tracing 189

10.4.2.1 Augmentation with Information Technology (IT) 189

10.4.3 Enforcing Quarantine – Operations and Mechanism 190

10.4.3.1 Provisions, Compensation, and Penalties During Quarantine 190

10.5 Active Participatory Role of the Public – Awareness and Preventive Behavior 192

10.5.1 Common Use of Masks and Response to Shortage 192

10.5.2 Promoting and Self-Adhering to Social Distancing 192

10.6 Healthcare System and Capacity 193

10.6.1 National Health Insurance (NHI) and Data Integration 193

10.6.2 Infectious Disease Control Medical Network 194

10.6.3 Assuring Care and Support for the Providers 195

10.7 The Heights of Cases, Anxiety, and Dilemmas 195

10.7.1 The Surge of Spring/Summer 2021 196

10.7.2 Amended Policies and Reflections of the Surge 197

10.8 Vaccine Supply, Hesitancy, and Distribution 198

10.8.1 Slow Delivery and Shortage of Supply 198

10.8.2 Vaccine Hesitancy and Demand 199

10.8.3 Vaccine Prioritization and Administration 200

10.9 Reflections and Conclusions 200

References 201

11 The Legislative and Political Responses of Viet Nam to the Covid-19 Pandemic: The Balancing of Public Health and Collective Civil Liberties 209
Nguyen T. Trung and Nguyen Q. Duong

Disclaimer 209

11.1 Introduction 209

11.2 Background: The FourWaves of Covid-19 in Viet Nam 211

11.2.1 The FirstWave (23 January–19 April 2020) 211

11.2.2 The SecondWave (25 July–2 September 2020) 212

11.2.3 The ThirdWave (28 January–13 March 2021) 213

11.2.4 The FourthWave (27 April–15 July 2021) 214

11.3 The Legislative Framework in Combating Infectious Disease 215

11.3.1 Legislative and Administrative Documents in Vietnam 215

11.3.2 The Constitution 215

11.3.3 The 2007 Law on Prevention and Control of Infectious Diseases 216

11.3.3.1 Prevention Measures 217

11.3.3.2 Combating Measures 217

11.3.3.3 Prohibited Activities and Fines for Failures to Implement Prevention and Combating Measures 218

11.3.4 The Criminal Code 219

11.3.5 Three Directives of the Prime Minister 220

11.4 The Policy Responses of the Vietnamese Government During the Pandemic 221

11.4.1 The Contact Tracing System 222

11.4.2 Quarantine Regulation 223

11.4.3 Social Distancing Measures 224

11.5 The Paradigm Shift in the Legal and Political Responses and the Balancing of Public Health and Civil Liberties 224

11.5.1 The Paradigm Shift in the Legal and Political Responses 225

11.5.2 The Balancing of Public Health and Civil Liberties 226

11.6 Conclusion 228

References 230

12 Singapore United 235
Jacinta I-Pei Chen, Sharon H.X. Tan, Peak Sen Chua, Jeremy Lim, and Jason Chin-Huat Yap

12.1 Governing Philosophy and Laws 235

12.2 Early Response to Circuit Breaker (February–May 2020) 237

12.2.1 Enforcement Approach 242

12.2.2 Financial and Other Supportive Resources 243

12.2.3 Religion, Marriage, and Family Life 244

12.2.4 Communications 245

12.3 Relaxation of Measures (June 2020–April 2021) 246

12.3.1 Prioritizing Sectors 251

12.3.2 Strengthening Outbreak Control Capabilities 251

12.3.3 General Elections 2020 253

12.4 Heightened Alert (May 2021–June 2021) 254

12.5 Leveraging Technology 261

12.5.1 Data Privacy, Security, and Governance 263

12.5.2 What Next? 264

12.6 MigrantWorker Dormitories 264

12.6.1 The Regulatory Regime 265

12.6.2 The Dormitory Outbreaks 265

12.6.3 Reflections 266

12.7 Discussion 271

12.8 Conclusion 272

Acknowledgements 273

References 273

Section 4 Countries Focused on Fostering Popular Trust in Government, Emphasizing Social Welfare, and Limiting Sanctions and Restrictions 301

13 Sweden and Covid-19: A (Mainly) Recommendary Approach 303
Iain Cameron and Anna Jonsson Cornell

13.1 Introduction 303

13.2 Setting the Stage – The Initial Swedish Response to the Pandemic 303

13.3 The Constitutional Context 305

13.4 The Legislative Procedure, Delegation of Powers, and Rights Protection 308

13.5 The Public Health Agency and the Act on Protection Against Contagious Diseases 309

13.6 Legal Measures Taken to Counter the Spread of Covid-19 311

13.7 Vaccination and Exit Strategies 312

13.8 Putting the Swedish Soft Power Strategy in Context 313

13.9 Evaluating the Swedish Measures from a Rule of Law Perspective 315

13.10 Concluding Remarks 319

14 Administrative Guidance in Coronavirus Special Measures Act in 2021 in Japan 323
Yuichiro Tsuji

14.1 The 2020 CSMA 323

14.1.1 2021 CSMA and Administrative Guidance 323

14.1.2 How CSMA was Amended 325

14.1.3 How CSMA was Amended, and Why 326

14.1.4 Legalization of the Self-restraint Order 326

14.1.5 Sanctions, not Penal but Administrative 327

14.1.6 Revision of the Infectious Diseases Act 328

14.2 Administrative Guidance and COVID-19 in 2021 329

14.2.1 Traditional Theory in Japanese Administrative Law 330

14.2.2 Legal Control of Administrative Guidance 330

14.2.3 Art. 33 of APA When a Citizen does not Follow Administrative Guidance 331

14.2.4 Public Announcement 332

14.2.5 Public Announcement in TMG 332

14.2.6 Merits and Demerits of Administrative Guidance 333

14.2.7 How to Impose Administrative Fine Procedural Requirement 334

14.2.8 APA Ordinance and TMG 334

14.3 Conclusion 335

References 336

15 Canada’s Fight Against COVID-19: Constitutionalism, Laws, and the Global Pandemic 339
Iffath U. Syed

15.1 Non-Pharmaceutical Intervention (NPI) Measures 340

15.2 COVID-19 Special Acts for Relief and Compensatory Measures 341

15.3 Long-Term Care Crisis 346

15.4 Research and Vaccine Development Initiatives 347

15.5 Other Policies and Governmental Actions to Dampen the Pandemic 347

15.6 New Year, But Pandemic Looms 350

15.7 Summary, Limitations, and Concluding Remarks 351

References 351

16 Coronavirus and the Social State: Austria in the Pandemic 359
Donald Abenheim and Carolyn Halladay

16.1 The Impfpflicht 361

16.2 The Freedom Party’s Liberties 363

16.3 A Bundle of Measures 364

16.4 A Decade or More of Crises 367

16.5 The Sozialstaat Strikes Back 371

16.6 Protest, Rhetoric, and the Law 373

16.7 Conclusion: Community, Communicability, and the Constitution 376

Afterword 379

Index 381