Extraction of Nuclear and Non-ferrous Metals (eBook)

Dr. Sujay Kumar Dutta is a former Professor and Head of the Department of Metallurgical & Materials Engineering, Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda, India. He received his Bachelor of Engineering (Metallurgy) from Calcutta University in 1975 and Master of Engineering (Industrial Metallurgy) from M. S. University of Baroda in 1980. He was awarded his Ph.D. from the Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur, India in 1992. He joined the M. S. University of Baroda as Lecturer in 1981, subsequently being appointed a Reader in 1993 and a Professor in 2001.  Prof. Dutta has received several awards, including the Essar Gold Medal (2006) from the Indian Institute of Metals, a Fellowship (2014) from the Indian Institute of Metals, and the IIM Distinguished Educator Award (2015) from the Indian Institute of Metals, Kolkata in recognition of his distinguished service to the Metallurgical Education and to the Indian Institute of Metals. Prof. Dutta has published three books along with other authors: (i) "Metallurgical Thermodynamics, Kinetics and Numericals" (2011), (ii) "Alternate Methods of Ironmaking (Direct Reduction and Smelting Reduction Processes)" (2012), (iii) "Iron Ore–Coal/Coke Composite Pellets" (2013), and another book (iv) "Extractive Metallurgy (Processes and Applications)" is currently in publication. He has also published 120 papers in national and international journals and conference proceedings.  Mr. Dharmesh. R. Lodhari is an Assistant Professor at the Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda in Gujarat, India. He completed his Bachelor of Engineering in Metallurgy in 1996 and Master of Engineering with specialization in Materials Technology from the M. S. University of Baroda in 2000. Presently he is pursuing his Ph.D. in the field of new alloy development. He has thirteen years of teaching and research experience in the metallurgical field, and has published numerous technical papers in national and international journals.

Preface 6
Contents 8
About the Authors 15
Extractive Metallurgy of Nuclear Metals 16
1 Fundamentals of Nuclear Metallurgy 17
1.1 Atomic Structure 17
1.2 Isotopes 18
1.3 Nuclear Binding Energy 18
1.4 Radioactivity 20
1.5 Rate of Radioactive Decay 22
1.6 Neutron Reaction 23
1.7 Cross-Sections for Neutron Reactions 26
1.8 Multiplication Factors 26
1.9 Types of Reactor 27
1.10 Nuclear Fuel and Breeding Reaction 28
1.11 Cladding Materials 30
1.12 Radiation Damage 30
1.12.1 Atomic Displacement 31
1.12.2 Temperature Spikes 32
1.12.3 Physical Effects of Radiation 32
1.13 Reprocessing of Irradiated Fuel 33
1.13.1 Cooling Irradiated Fuel Elements 34
1.13.2 Head-End Processes 35
1.13.3 Separations or Extraction Process 35
1.14 Processing of Nuclear Metals 36
1.14.1 Separation Processes 38
1.14.1.1 Ion Exchange 38
1.14.1.2 Solvent Extraction 39
1.14.2 Extraction Techniques 39
1.14.2.1 Oxide and Halide Intermediates 40
2 Uranium 41
2.1 Introduction 41
2.2 Sources 42
2.3 Extraction of Uranium from Ore 43
2.3.1 Acid Leaching 43
2.3.2 Ion Exchange Separation 43
2.3.3 Production of Reactor Grade Uranyl Nitrate 46
2.3.4 Production of Uranium Dioxide 46
2.3.5 Reduction of Uranium Compounds 47
2.3.5.1 Preparation of Uranium Tetrafluoride 47
2.3.5.2 Reduction of UF4 48
2.3.6 High Purity Uranium Metal 49
2.4 Properties 49
2.5 Applications 51
3 Plutonium 52
3.1 Introduction 52
3.2 Sources 53
3.3 Extraction of Plutonium 54
3.3.1 Separation of Plutonium 54
3.3.1.1 Precipitation 56
3.3.1.2 Organic Solvent Extraction Process 56
3.3.1.3 Ion-Exchange Process 58
3.3.1.4 Pyrometallurgical Processes 59
3.3.2 Reduction to Plutonium Metal 60
3.3.3 Extraction of Plutonium from Spent Fuel 61
3.4 Properties 61
3.5 Applications 63
4 Zirconium 65
4.1 Introduction 65
4.2 Sources 65
4.3 Exreaction of Zirconium 66
4.3.1 Separation of Zirconium and Hafnium 66
4.3.2 Preparation of Zirconium Oxide 69
4.3.3 Production of Zirconium Tetrachloride 69
4.3.4 Reduction of ZrCl4 by Mg or Na 69
4.3.4.1 Kroll Process (by Mg) 70
4.3.4.2 Modified Kroll Process (by Na) 70
4.3.4.3 Bimetal Reduction 70
4.4 Properties 71
4.5 Applications 72
5 Hafnium 74
5.1 Introduction 74
5.2 Sources 74
5.3 Extraction of Hafnium 75
5.3.1 Separation of Zirconium and Hafnium 75
5.3.2 Preparation of HfO2 75
5.3.3 Production of Hafnium Metal 75
5.3.3.1 Kroll Process 75
5.3.3.2 Reduction of HfCl4 by Na 76
5.3.3.3 Reduction of HfO2 by Si/Al 76
5.4 Properties 77
5.5 Applications 78
6 Thorium 79
6.1 Introduction 79
6.2 Sources 80
6.3 Extraction of Thorium 80
6.3.1 Separation of Thorium Compound from Monazite 80
6.3.1.1 Sulphuric Acid Method 80
6.3.1.2 Sodium Hydroxide Method 83
6.3.2 Thorium Oxalate Formation 84
6.3.3 Chlorination of Thorium Oxalate 84
6.3.4 Purification of ThCl4 85
6.3.5 Reduction of ThCl4 85
6.3.6 Purification of Thorium Metal 86
6.4 Production of Thorium Powder 86
6.5 Production of Massive Thorium Metal 87
6.6 Properties 88
6.7 Applications 89
Extractive Metallurgy of Common Metals 91
7 Copper 94
7.1 Introduction 94
7.2 Sources 94
7.3 Extraction of Copper 95
7.3.1 Concentration 95
7.3.2 Roasting 95
7.3.3 Smelting 97
7.3.4 Converting 99
7.3.5 Refining 102
7.3.5.1 Fire Refining 103
7.3.5.2 Electrolytic Refining 104
7.4 Newer Processes 105
7.4.1 Flash Smelting Process 107
7.4.2 Continuous Process 108
7.4.2.1 WORCRA Process 108
7.4.2.2 Noranda Process 109
7.4.2.3 Mitsubishi Process 110
7.5 TORCO Segregation Process 111
7.6 Recovery of Precious Metals 112
7.7 Hydrometallurgical Process of Copper 114
7.7.1 Ferric Chloride Leaching 114
7.7.2 Leaching of Low Grade Ores 114
7.7.3 Leaching of Roasted Sulphide Concentrates 115
7.8 Properties 116
7.9 Applications 118
8 Aluminium 120
8.1 Introduction 120
8.2 Sources 120
8.3 Extraction of Aluminium 121
8.3.1 Bayer Process 121
8.3.2 Hall-Heroult Process 124
8.3.2.1 Decomposition Potential 127
8.3.2.2 Factors Affecting Electrolysis 129
8.3.3 Refining of Aluminium 130
8.4 Properties 131
8.5 Applications 132
9 Zinc 134
9.1 Introduction 134
9.2 Sources 134
9.3 Extraction of Zinc 135
9.3.1 Pyrometallurgical Process 135
9.3.1.1 Roasting 135
9.3.1.2 Retort Distillation 137
9.3.1.3 Vertical Retorts 138
9.3.1.4 Physical Chemistry of Zinc Smelting 139
9.3.2 Hydrometallurgical Process 141
9.4 Properties 143
9.5 Applications 143
10 Lead 145
10.1 Introduction 145
10.2 Sources 145
10.3 Extraction of Lead 146
10.3.1 Concentration 147
10.3.2 Dead Roasting 147
10.3.3 Smelting 148
10.3.4 Refining 151
10.3.4.1 Drossing and Skimming 152
10.3.4.2 Softening of Lead Bullion 152
10.3.4.3 Desilverization 152
10.3.4.4 Electrolytic Refining 153
10.4 Properties 154
10.5 Applications 154
11 Tin 157
11.1 Introduction 157
11.2 Sources 157
11.3 Extraction of Tin 157
11.3.1 Concentration 158
11.3.2 Reduction of Concentrate 159
11.3.3 Treatments of Slags for Recovery of Metals 159
11.3.4 Refining 160
11.4 Properties 161
11.5 Applications 162
12 Magnesium 163
12.1 Introduction 163
12.2 Sources 163
12.3 Extraction of Magnesium 164
12.3.1 Pyrometallurgical Process 165
12.3.1.1 Method of Production of MgO 165
12.3.1.2 Thermal Process (Reduction of MgO) 165
12.3.1.3 Reaction Mechanism 168
12.3.2 Electrometallurgical Process 169
12.3.2.1 Method of Production of MgCl2 169
12.3.2.2 Electrolytic Process 170
12.3.2.3 Refining of Electrolytic Magnesium 172
12.3.3 Other Processes for Extraction of Mg 173
12.4 Properties 173
12.5 Applications 173
13 Nickel 175
13.1 Introduction 175
13.2 Sources 175
13.3 Extraction of Nickel 176
13.3.1 Concentration 176
13.3.2 Treatment of Ni–Cu Sulphide Concentrate 177
13.3.2.1 Roasting 177
13.3.2.2 Smelting 177
13.3.2.3 Converting 177
13.3.2.4 Separation of Ni and Cu Sulphides 178
13.3.2.5 Roast Sintering 178
13.3.2.6 Reduction 178
13.3.3 Refining 178
13.3.3.1 The Mond Process 179
(a) Carbonyl Process 179
(b) INCO Pressure Carbonylation Process 180
13.3.3.2 Electrolytic Process 180
13.4 Properties 181
13.5 Applications 182
Extractive Metallurgy of Less Common Metals and Ferro-Alloying Metals 183
14 Silicon 186
14.1 Introduction 186
14.2 Sources 186
14.3 Extraction 187
14.3.1 Metallic Silicon 187
14.3.2 Ferro-Silicon 188
14.4 Properties 190
14.5 Applications 190
15 Manganese 191
15.1 Introduction 191
15.2 Sources 191
15.3 Extraction 192
15.3.1 Beneficiation 192
15.3.2 Metallic Manganese 192
15.3.2.1 Alumino-Thermic Method 192
15.3.2.2 Electrolytic Method 193
15.3.3 Ferro-Manganese 193
15.3.3.1 Blast Furnace Method 193
15.3.3.2 Electric Furnace Method 194
15.4 Properties 195
15.5 Applications 196
16 Chromium 198
16.1 Introduction 198
16.2 Sources 198
16.3 Extraction 199
16.3.1 Metallic Chromium 199
16.3.2 Ferro-Chromium 200
16.3.2.1 High Carbon Ferro-Chrome 201
16.3.2.2 Low Carbon Ferro-Chrome 202
16.3.2.3 Extra-Low Carbon Ferro-Chrome 202
16.4 Properties 203
16.5 Applications 203
17 Tungsten 205
17.1 Introduction 205
17.2 Sources 205
17.3 Extraction 206
17.3.1 Metallic Tungsten 206
17.3.2 Ferro Tungsten 207
17.4 Properties 207
17.5 Application 208
18 Molybdenum 209
18.1 Introduction 209
18.2 Sources 209
18.3 Extraction 210
18.3.1 Concentration of Molybdenite 210
18.3.2 Metallic Molybdenum 211
18.3.3 Calcium Molybdate 212
18.3.4 Ferro-Molybdenum 212
18.4 Properties 213
18.5 Applications 213
19 Vanadium 214
19.1 Introduction 214
19.2 Sources 214
19.3 Extraction 215
19.3.1 Recovery of Vanadium Pentoxide 215
19.3.2 Metallic Vanadium 215
19.3.3 Ferro-Vanadium 218
19.4 Properties 220
19.5 Applications 221
20 Niobium and Tantalum 222
20.1 Introduction 222
20.2 Sources 222
20.3 Extraction 223
20.3.1 Separation of Niobium and Tantalum from Ores 223
20.3.2 Metallic Niobium 223
20.3.3 Metallic Tantalum 226
20.3.4 Ferro-Niobium 228
20.4 Properties 229
20.4.1 Niobium 229
20.4.2 Tantalum 229
20.5 Applications 230
20.5.1 Niobium 230
20.5.2 Tantalum 231
Production of Ultra-High Purity Metals 232
21 Methods of Refining 233
21.1 Introduction 233
21.2 Zone Refining 233
21.3 Vacuum Induction Melting 235
21.4 Vacuum Arc Melting 236
21.5 Inert Atmosphere Arc Melting 239
21.6 Electron Beam Melting 240
Appendix 244
Some Thermodynamic Data* 246
Bibliography 247