New Public Health (eBook)

Front Cover 1
The New Public Health 4
Contents 6
Acknowledgments 18
Foreword 20
Introduction 24
Chapter 1. A History of Public Health 28
Introduction 28
Prehistoric Societies 29
The Ancient World 30
The Early Medieval Period (Fifth to Tenth Centuries AD) 32
The Late Medieval Period (Eleventh to Fifteenth Centuries) 33
The Renaissance (1500–1750) 37
Enlightenment, Science, and Revolution (1750–1830) 39
Foundations of Health Statistics and Epidemiology 43
Social Reform and the Sanitary Movement (1830–1875) 45
Hospital Reform 52
The Bacteriologic Revolution 53
Microbiology and Immunology 57
Maternal and Child Health 59
Nutrition in Public Health 61
Military Medicine 63
Internationalization of Health 64
The Epidemiologic Transition 65
The Evolution of Public Health in the Twentieth Century 66
Creating and Managing Health Systems 68
Summary 69
Historical Markers 71
Recommended Readings 76
Bibliography 76
Chapter 2. Expanding the Concept of Public Health 78
Introduction 78
Evolution of Public Health 79
Health and Disease 80
The Natural History of Disease 83
Society and Health 85
Modes of Prevention 87
Demographic and Epidemiologic Transition 90
Interdependence of Health Services 91
Defining Public Health 93
World Health Organization’s Definition of Health 96
Selective Primary Care 99
The Risk Approach 100
The Case-for-Action 101
Political Economy and Health 104
Health and Development 106
Health Systems: The Case for Reform 107
Advocacy and Consumerism 108
The Health Field Concept 113
The Value of Medical Care in Public Health 114
Health Targets 115
Individual and Community Participation in Health 121
Social Ecology and Health Promotion 126
Defining Public Health Standards 127
Integrative Approaches to Public Health 128
The New Public Health 129
Summary 131
Recommended Readings 133
Bibliography 134
Chapter 3. Measuring and Evaluating the Health of a Population 136
Introduction 136
Epidemiology 137
Social Epidemiology 139
Epidemiology in Building Health Policy 140
Rates and Ratios 142
Demography 143
Life Expectancy 152
Sentinel Events 153
The Burden of Disease 154
Measurements 155
Normal Distribution 157
Standardization of Rates 158
Sampling 161
Potential Errors in Measurement 161
Screening for Disease 163
Epidemiologic Studies 165
Establishing Causal Relationships 169
Notifiable Diseases 170
Special Registries and Reporting Systems 170
Disease Classification 172
Hospital Discharge Information 172
Health Information Systems (Informatics) 176
Surveillance, Reporting, and Publication 178
Assessing the Health of the Individual 179
Assessment of Population Health 180
Health Care Financing and Organization 186
Summary—From Information to Knowledge to Policy 190
Electronic Sources 190
Recommended Readings 191
Bibliography 192
Chapter 4. Communicable Diseases 194
Introduction 194
Public Health and the Control of Communicable Disease 194
The Nature of Communicable Disease 196
Host–Agent–Environment Triad 197
Classifications of Communicable Diseases 198
Modes of Transmission of Disease 199
Immunity 200
Surveillance 202
Endemic and Epidemic Disease 204
Control of Communicable Diseases 208
Vaccine-Preventable Diseases 209
Essentials of an Immunization Program 225
Control/Eradication of Infectious Diseases 228
Tuberculosis 234
Streptococcal Diseases 237
Zoonoses 238
Vector-Borne Diseases 240
Parasitic Diseases 247
Legionnaire’s Disease 253
Leprosy 253
Trachoma 254
Sexually Transmitted Diseases 254
Diarrheal Diseases 260
Acute Respiratory Infections 266
Communicable Disease Control in the New Public Health 268
Summary 269
Electronic Media 270
Recommended Readings 270
Bibliography 271
Vaccine-Preventable Disease 271
Other Communicable Diseases 272
Chapter 5. Noncommunicable Conditions 274
Introduction 274
The Rise of Chronic Disease 274
The Burden of Chronic Conditions 277
Risk Factors and Causation of Chronic Conditions 277
Chronic Manifestations of Infectious Diseases 281
Cardiovascular Diseases 283
Chronic Lung Disease 291
Diabetes Mellitus 293
End Stage Renal Disease 296
Cancer 298
Chronic Liver Disease 303
Arthritis and Musculoskeletal Disorders 304
Neurological Disorders 306
Visual Disorders 307
Hearing Disorders 308
Trauma, Violence, and Injury 309
Chronic Disease and the New Public Health 316
Summary 316
Electronic Media 317
Recommended Reading 317
Bibliography 318
Chapter 6. Family Health 320
Introduction 320
The Family Unit 321
Maternal Health 322
Labor and Delivery 332
Genetic and Birth Disorders 338
Infant and Child Health 346
Infancy Care and Feeding 349
Anticipatory Counseling 351
Documentation, Records, and Monitoring 351
The Preschooler (Ages 1–5 Years) 353
School and Adolescent Health 355
Adult Health 361
Women’s Health 362
Men’s Health 365
Health of the Elderly 366
Summary 374
Electronic Media 375
Recommended Readings 375
Bibliography 375
Chapter 7. Special Community Health Needs 378
Introduction 378
Mental Health 378
Mental Handicap 395
Oral Health 397
Physical Disability and Rehabilitation 400
Special Group Health Needs 404
Gay and Lesbian Health 404
Native Peoples’ Health 406
Prisoners’ Health 408
Homeless Population Health 411
Refugee Health 413
Military Medicine 414
Health Protection in Disasters 415
Internet Websites 419
Summary 420
Electronic Media 420
Recommended Readings 421
Bibliography 422
Chapter 8. Nutrition and Food Safety 424
Introduction 424
Development of Nutrition in Public Health 425
Nutrition in a Global Context 426
Nutrition and Infection 428
Functions of Food 428
Human Nutritional Requirements 429
Growth 434
Measuring Body Mass 435
Recommended Dietary Allowances 436
Disorders of Undernutrition 439
Vitamin and Mineral Deficiency Conditions 442
Eating Disorders 449
Diseases of Overnutrition 449
Nutrition in Pregnancy and Lactation 453
Promoting Healthy Diets and Lifestyles 454
Dietary Guidelines 455
Vitamin and Mineral Enrichment of Basic Foods 456
Food and Nutrition Policy 457
Nutrition Monitoring and Evaluation 461
Food Quality and Safety 464
Nutrition and the New Public Health 469
Summary 470
Electronic Media 470
Recommended Readings 471
Bibliography 471
Nutrition and Food Technology Journals 472
Chapter 9. Environmental and Occupational Health 474
Environmental Health: Introduction 474
Environmental Issues 475
Geographic and Environmental Epidemiology 476
Environmental Targets 476
Global Environmental Change 477
Community Water Supplies 479
Sewage Collection and Treatment 483
Solid Waste 485
Toxins 487
Agricultural and Environmental Hazards 490
Air Pollution 491
Indoor Pollution 496
Hazardous or Toxic Wastes 498
Radiation 500
Environmental Impact 502
Environmental Health Organization 507
Occupational Health: Introduction 508
Development of Occupational Health 508
The Health of Workers 510
The Burden of Occupational Morbidity and Mortality 511
International Issues in Occupational Health 512
National and Management Responsibilities 513
Occupational Health Targets 515
Toxicity at the Workplace and in the Environment 515
Workplace Violence 522
Occupational Health in Clinical Practice 523
Inspecting the Place of Work 523
Risk Assessment 523
Preventing Disasters in the Workplace 524
Occupation and the New Public Health 525
Summary 526
Electronic Media 527
Recommended Readings 527
Bibliography—Water Quality and Waterborne Disease 527
Bibliography—Occupational and Environmental Health 528
Chapter 10. Organization of Public Health Systems 530
Introduction 530
Government and Health of the Nation 531
Functions of Public Health 534
Nongovernment Roles in Health 539
Medical Practice and Public Health 540
Incentives and Regulation 541
National Government Public Health Services 546
State Government Public Health Services 549
Local Health Authorities 553
Monitoring Health Status 556
National Health Targets 557
Public Health Organization and the New Public Health 558
Hospitals in the New Public Health 560
The Uninsured as a Public Health Problem 567
Summary 568
Electronic Media 569
Recommended Readings 569
Bibliography 570
Chapter 11. Measuring Costs: The Economics of Health 572
Introduction 572
Economic Issues of Health Systems 572
Basic Concepts in Health Economics 574
Need, Demand, and Utilization of Health Services 575
Competition in Health Care 579
Elasticities of Demand 581
Measuring Costs 583
Economic Measures of Health Status 584
Cost–Effectiveness Analysis 585
Cost–Benefit Analysis 587
Basic Assessment Scheme for Intervention Costs and Consequences 588
The Value of Human Life 589
Health Financing—The Macroeconomics Level 591
Costs of Illness 595
Medical and Hospital Care—Microeconomics 598
District Health Systems 602
Paying for Hospital Care 603
Capital Costs 605
Hospital Supply, Utilization, and Costs 605
Modified Market Forces 608
Economics and the New Public Health 608
Summary 609
Electronic Media 610
Recommended Readings 610
Bibliography 611
Chapter 12. Planning and Managing Health Systems 614
Introduction 614
Health Policy and Planning as Context 615
The Elements of Organizations 617
Scientific Management 617
Bureaucratic Pyramidal Organizations 618
Organizations as Energy Systems 619
Target-Oriented Management 622
Human Relations Management 623
Network Organization 628
Total Quality Management 629
Changing Human Behavior 631
Empowerment 632
Strategic Management of Health Systems 633
Health System Organization Models 635
Skills for Management 639
The Chief Executive Officer of Health Organizations 639
Community Participation 640
Integration—Lateral and Vertical 641
Norms and Performance Indicators 641
New Organizational Models 642
Management and the New Public Health 642
Summary 643
Recommended Readings 644
Bibliography 644
Chapter 13. National Health Systems 646
Introduction 646
Health Systems in Developed Countries 647
The United States 650
Canada 662
The United Kingdom 666
The Nordic Countries 671
Western Europe 675
Japan 678
Russia 680
Israel 687
Health Systems in Developing Countries 692
Sub-Saharan Africa 693
Latin America and the Caribbean 695
Asia 698
Comparing National Health Systems 702
Reforming National Health Systems 707
Health Systems and the New Public Health 710
Electronic Media 712
Recommended Readings 712
Bibliography 712
Chapter 14. Human Resources for Health Care 718
Introduction 718
Overview of Human Resources 719
Human Resources Planning 721
Basic Medical Education 725
Postgraduate Medical Training 729
Specialization and Family Practice 731
Training in Preventive Medicine 732
Nursing Education 733
In-Service and Continuing Education 735
Accreditation of Medical Educational or Training Facilities 736
The Range of Health Disciplines 737
Licensure and Supervision 737
Constraints on the Health Care Provider 739
New Health Professions 741
Alternative Medicine 746
Changing the Balance 747
Education for Public Health and Health Management 748
Health Policy and Management of Human Resources 753
Summary 754
Electronic Media 755
Recommended Readings 755
Bibliography 756
Chapter 15. Technology, Quality, Law, and Ethics 758
Introduction 758
Innovation, Regulation, and Quality Control 759
Appropriate Health Technology 761
Health Technology Assessment 764
Dissemination of Technology 770
Quality Assurance 772
Organization of Care 781
Performance Indicators 782
Consumerism and Quality 783
The Public Interest 784
Total Quality Management 784
Public Health Law 787
Ethical Issues in Public Health 789
Summary—Technology, Quality, Law, and Ethics in the New Public Health 796
Electronic Media 797
Recommended Readings 798
Bibliography 798
Relevant Journals 800
Relevant Organizations 800
Chapter 16. Globalization of Health 802
Why the “Globalization of Health”? 802
The Global Health Situation 803
Priorities in Global Health 805
Development and Health 815
Organization for International Health 816
The World Health Organization 817
Nongovernmental Organizations 821
The World Bank 822
Trends in Global Health 823
Emerging Infectious Disease Threats 824
New and Renewed Targets and Goals 827
Expanding National Health Capacity 829
Global Health and the New Public Health 830
Summary 832
Electronic Media 834
Recommended Readings 834
Bibliography 835
Publications and Journals 835
Glossary 836
Subject Index 866