Earthquake Engineering in Europe (eBook)

Preface 6
Contents 9
Contributors 12
1 Seismic Engineering of Monuments 16
1.1 The Significance of the Subject 16
1.2 Structural Interventions and the Conflict of Values 18
1.3 Importance, Visitability and Acceptable Damage-Levels 22
1.4 Historical and Experimental Documentation, and Uncertainty Levels 25
1.4.1 Introduction 25
1.4.2 Experimental Documentation 26
Instrumental In-Situ Methods 27
Laboratory Methods 28
Monitoring (in-Time) 28
1.4.3 Uncertainty Levels 30
1.5 Structural Analysis 30
1.5.1 Introduction 30
1.5.2 General Criteria for the Selection of the Methods of Analysis 31
1.5.3 Reliable Discretisation for Each Method of Analysis 32
1.5.4 Analysis of --Sculptured Stones/Dry Joints-- Monuments (Graeco--Roman) 33
1.6 Evaluation of Resistances 34
1.6.1 Semi-analytic Strength Determination 35
1.6.2 Additional In-Situ Strength Determination 41
1.6.3 In-Lab Testing of Replicas 41
1.6.4 Testing on Earthquake Simulators 42
1.6.5 Resistance of Walls or Columns Made of Sculptured Stones/Dry Joints (Graeco--Roman) 43
1.7 Assessment of the Actual Seismic Capacity of the Monument 43
1.8 Selection of the Re-design Earthquake for the Structural Intervention 45
1.8.1 Historic Data 45
1.8.2 Actual Seismological Studies 45
1.8.3 Pre-selected Seismic Loads 46
1.9 Preliminary Designs 47
1.10 Selection of the Final Optimal Solution 49
1.11 Annex 50
Deformational Characteristics of Masonry in Monuments 50
References 55
References Related to Experimental Investigation 55
Part I Engineering Seismology 58
2 Microzonation for Earthquake Scenarios 59
2.1 Introduction 60
2.2 Seismic Hazard and Earthquake Motion 61
2.3 Site Characterizations 63
2.4 Microzonation with Respect to Ground Motion 65
2.5 Comparisons with Previous Microzonation Studies 70
2.6 Microzonation with Respect to PGA 73
2.7 Microzonation with Respect to PGV 75
2.8 Conclusions 76
References 77
3 Analysis of Regional Ground Motion Variations for Engineering Application 80
3.1 Introduction 80
3.2 Methods for Analyzing Regional IM Variations 81
3.2.1 Comparison of GMPEs 81
3.2.2 Analysis of Variance 82
3.2.3 Overall Goodness of Fit of GMPE to Data 84
3.2.4 Verification of Specific GMPE Attributes Relative to Regional Data 85
3.3 Discussion and Conclusions 86
References 87
Part II Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering 89
4 Non Linear Soil Structure Interaction: Impact on the Seismic Response of Structures 90
4.1 Introduction 90
4.2 Linear Soil Structure Interaction 91
4.3 Non Linear Soil Structure Interaction 92
4.4 Problem Description 93
4.5 Description of the Macroelement 95
4.5.1 Generalized Variables 95
4.5.2 Elastic Range 95
4.5.3 Plasticity Model 96
4.5.4 Uplift -- Plasticity Coupling 98
4.5.5 Model Parameters 99
4.5.5.1 Viscoelastic Parameters 99
4.5.5.2 Bounding Surface Parameters 99
4.5.5.3 Plasticity Model Parameters 99
4.6 Superstructure Model 101
4.7 Incremental Dynamic Analyses 102
4.7.1 Intensity Measures 102
4.7.2 Damage Measures 103
4.7.3 Time Histories 104
4.8 Structural Behavior in the Light of Incremental Dynamic Analyses 107
4.8.1 Typical Result of a Dynamic Analysis 108
4.8.2 Statistical Results 108
4.9 Conclusions 113
References 113
5 From Non-invasive Site Characterization to Site Amplification: Recent Advances in the Use of Ambient Vibration Measurements 115
5.1 Introduction 116
5.2 Array Measurements and Processing of Ambient Vibrations 116
5.2.1 Hardware 117
5.2.2 Software 118
5.2.3 Derivation and Inversion of Rayleigh Wave Ellipticity 120
5.3 Testing of Ambient Vibration Array Techniques 122
5.3.1 Technical and scientific considerations 122
5.3.2 Cost Considerations 126
5.4 Usefulness for Routine Applications: Derivation of Noise-Compatible Site Amplification Prediction Equations (SAPE) 126
5.5 Conclusions 130
References 131
6 Effects of Non-plastic Fines on Liquefaction Resistance of Sandy Soils 134
6.1 Introduction 134
6.2 Observations from Laboratory Studies 135
6.2.1 Influence of Fines on Packing (Soil Skeleton Structure) 136
6.2.2 Basis for Comparison 137
6.2.3 Effects of Fines on Liquefaction Resistance 139
6.2.3.1 Void Ratio as a Reference State 140
6.2.3.2 Relative Density as a Reference State 141
6.2.3.3 Equivalent Intergranular Void Ratio as a Reference State 143
6.3 Interpretation of Field-Based Criteria for Liquefaction Resistance of Sands with Fines 144
6.3.1 SPT-Criteria for Liquefaction Resistance 145
6.3.2 Correlation Between Relative Density and SPT Blow Count 147
6.3.3 SPT-Criteria for Liquefaction Resistance Expressed in Terms of Relative Density 149
6.4 Summary and Conclusions 150
References 151
Part III Seismic Performance of Buildings 154
7 Performance Based Seismic Design of Tall Buildings 155
7.1 Introduction 155
7.2 What Is a Tall Building? 156
7.3 Are Tall Buildings Particularly Vulnerable to Earthquake Ground Motions? 156
7.4 Should Tall Buildings Be Treated Like Other Buildings? 157
7.5 Why Performance Based Design Is a Necessity for Tall Buildings? 158
7.6 What Is Involved in Performance Based Design of Tall Buildings? 160
7.6.1 Establishment of Performance Objectives 160
7.6.1.1 The Current Approach 161
7.6.1.2 The Rigorous Approach 163
7.6.2 Design Procedures 164
7.6.3 Evaluation Procedures 165
7.6.3.1 Analysis Methods 165
7.6.3.2 Modeling Criteria 168
7.6.3.3 Acceptability Criteria 172
7.6.4 Ground Motion Record Selection and Scaling 173
7.6.5 Peer Review Requirements 174
7.6.6 Instrumentation and Structural Health Monitoring 175
7.7 Conclusion 176
References 176
8 Evaluation of Analysis Procedures for Seismic Assessment and Retrofit Design 178
8.1 Introduction 178
8.2 Analysis Procedures for Seismic Assessment and Design 179
8.2.1 Linear Analysis Procedure for Strength-Based Assessment and Design: Traditional Procedure for ''Linear Engineers'' 179
8.2.2 Nonlinear Analysis Procedures for Deformation-Based Seismic Assessment: A New Era in Earthquake Engineering 181
8.2.2.1 Reshaping Engineers' Minds for Nonlinear Seismic Behavior: From University Education to Professional Training 183
8.2.2.2 ''Linear Engineers'' Strikes Back: Fallacy of Equivalent Linear Response with a Fictitious Damping 183
8.2.2.3 Nonlinear Modeling and Acceptance Criteria in Deformation-Based Seismic Assessment 183
8.3 Rigorous Nonlinear Analysis Procedure: Nonlinear Response-History Analysis 185
8.4 Practice-Oriented Nonlinear Analysis Procedures Based on Pushover Analysis 186
8.4.1 Historical Evolution of Pushover Analysis: From ''Capacity Analysis'' to ''Capacity-and-Demand Analysis'' 186
8.4.2 Piecewise Linear Relationships for Modal Equivalent Seismic Loads and Displacements 187
8.4.3 Single-Mode Pushover Analysis: Piecewise Linear Implementation with Adaptive and Invariant Load Patterns 188
8.4.3.1 Adaptive Load or Displacement Patterns 189
8.4.3.2 Invariant Load Pattern 189
8.4.3.3 Load-Controlled Piecewise Linear Pushover-History Analysis 189
8.4.3.4 Displacement-Controlled Piecewise Linear Pushover-History Analysis 190
8.4.3.5 Estimation of Modal Displacement Demand: Inelastic Spectral Displacement 190
8.4.4 Multi-Mode Pushover Analysis 191
8.4.4.1 Modal Scaling 192
8.4.4.2 Single-Run Pushover Analysis with Invariant Combined Single-Load Pattern 196
8.4.4.3 Single-Run Pushover Analysis with Adaptive Combined Single-Load Patterns 196
8.4.4.4 Single-Run Pushover Analysis with Adaptive Combined Single-Displacement Patterns 198
8.4.4.5 Simultaneous Multi-Mode Pushover Analyses with Adaptive Multi-Mode Load Patterns: Adaptive Spectra-Based Pushover Procedure 198
8.4.4.6 Simultaneous Multi-Mode Pushover Analyses with Adaptive Multi-Mode Displacement Patterns: Incremental Response Spectrum Analysis (IRSA) 199
8.4.4.7 Individual Multi-Mode Pushover Analysis with Invariant Multi-Mode Load Patterns: Modal Pushover Analysis (MPA) 201
8.5 Concluding Remarks 202
References 203
9 Reflections on the Rehabilitation and the Retrofitof Historical Constructions 206
9.1 Introduction 206
9.2 Damage Caused by Recent Earthquakes in Old Buildings and Monumental Structures 208
9.3 The Cases in Portugal: Lisbon and Azores 212
9.3.1 The ''Pombaline'' Construction 213
9.3.2 The Traditional Construction in the Azores 214
9.3.2.1 Characterization of Buildings 214
9.4 Strengthening Techniques 216
9.4.1 The Pombaline Construction 217
9.4.2 Rehabilitation in the Azores 218
9.4.3 What to Do 221
9.5 Final Notes 226
References 227
10 Engineers Understanding of Earthquakes Demand and Structures Response 229
11 Current Trends in the Seismic Design and Assessment of Buildings 254
11.1 Introduction 254
11.2 Seismic Design of Buildings 255
11.2.1 The Direct Displacement-Based Approach 257
11.2.1.1 Step 1: Target Displacement Pattern and Equivalent SDOF System 257
11.2.1.2 Step 2: Estimation of Effective Damping of SDOF System 259
11.2.1.3 Step 3: Calculate Design Base Shear 260
11.2.1.4 Step 4: Lateral Force Analysis 261
11.2.1.5 Step 5: Design of Structural Members 262
11.2.1.6 Step 6: Detailing of Structural Members 263
11.2.2 The Direct Deformation-Based Approach 263
11.2.2.1 Step 1: Flexural Design of Plastic Hinge Zones Based on Serviceability Criteria 263
11.2.2.2 Step 2: Selection of Seismic Actions 265
11.2.2.3 Step 3: Set-Up of the Partially Inelastic Model 266
11.2.2.4 Step 4: Serviceability Verifications 266
11.2.2.5 Step 5: Design of Longitudinal Reinforcement in Columns (and Walls) for the ''Life Safety'' Limit State 266
11.2.2.6 Step 6: Design for Shear 267
11.2.2.7 Step 7: Detailing for Confinement, Anchorages and Lap Splices 267
11.3 Case-Studies of Application of Different Methodologies 267
11.3.1 Four-Storey Building with Irregularity in Plan 268
11.3.1.1 Discussion of Different Design Aspects 268
11.3.1.2 Evaluation of Different Designs 270
11.3.2 Ten-Storey Building with Irregularity in Plan and Elevation 271
11.3.2.1 Discussion of Different Design Aspects 271
11.3.2.2 Evaluation of Different Designs 272
11.4 Assessment of Different Designs 273
11.4.1 Overview of Available Assessment Procedures 273
11.4.2 Assessment of the Building Designed to the Displacement-Based Procedure 274
11.4.3 Assessment of the Building Designed to the Deformation-Based Procedure 276
11.5 Closing Remarks 279
References 281
12 Performance-Based Design of Tall Reinforced Concrete Core Wall Buildings 283
12.1 Introduction 283
12.2 Wall Modeling 285
12.3 Coupling Beams 289
12.3.1 Experimental Results 292
12.3.2 Modeling 295
12.4 Shear Modeling 298
12.5 Capacity Design 299
12.6 Slab-Column Frames 301
12.7 Slab-Wall Connections 303
12.8 Instrumentation for Seismic Monitoring 305
12.9 Engineering Demand Parameters and Fragility Relations 306
12.10 Performance Assessment 307
12.11 Conclusions 308
References 309
Part IV Earthquake Resistant Engineering Structures 312
13 Open Issues in the Seismic Design and Assessment of Bridges 313
13.1 Introduction 313
13.2 Level of Protection 314
13.3 Methods of Analysis and Modelling 315
13.3.1 Nonlinear Static Methods 316
13.3.2 Nonlinear Dynamic Method 316
13.3.3 Modelling 320
13.4 Soil-Foundation-Structure Interaction 322
13.5 Non Uniform Support Input 327
References 330
14 Recent Developments on Structural Health Monitoring and Data Analyses 333
14.1 Introduction 334
14.2 Damage Detection Based on Natural Frequencies 336
14.3 Damage Detection Based on Permanent Deformations 339
14.4 Damage Detection Based on Wave Propagation 341
14.5 Minimizing Effects of Noise in Spectral Analysis 346
14.5.1 Segmentation and Averaging 347
14.5.2 Selection of Optimal Smoothing Windows 348
14.5.3 Least-Squares Estimation of Fourier Spectra 348
14.6 Statistical Signal Processing 350
14.6.1 Autocorrelation Functions and Optimal Filters 350
14.6.2 Eigenvalues of Autocorrelation Matrix 351
14.7 Tracking Time Variations of Signal Properties 353
14.8 Conclusions 355
References 355
Part V New Techniques and Technologies 358
15 Large Scale Testing 359
15.1 Introduction 359
15.2 The Co-operation between European Large-Scale Earthquake Testing Facilities 361
15.2.1 Past Co-operation 361
15.2.2 Present Opportunities: The SERIES Project 363
15.2.3 New Research Infrastructures in Europe: The EFAST Project 364
15.3 Examples of Large-Scale Testing 365
15.3.1 Objectives of Structural Testing 365
15.3.2 Testing of a 4-Storey RC Structure Designed to the Eurocodes 367
15.3.3 Assessment and Retrofit of Existing RC Frame Structures 368
15.3.4 3D Tests on a Torsionally Unbalanced Structure 369
15.3.5 Pseudo-Dynamic Testing of Bridges with Non-linear Substructuring 372
15.4 Large-Scale Testing: Needs and Opportunities 373
15.4.1 New Concepts and Concerns in Seismic Design 373
15.4.2 Earthquake Expected Losses: Illustrative Example 375
15.4.3 Further Development of the Eurocodes 376
15.4.4 Harmonization of Experimental and Analytical Simulations 378
15.5 Conclusion 379
References 380
16 The Contribution of Shaking Tables to Early Developments in Earthquake Engineering 382
16.1 Introduction 382
16.2 Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering 383
16.2.1 Studies on Dry and Wet Sand by F.J. Rogers 383
16.2.2 Further Studies on Sand, by L.S. Jacobsen 385
16.2.3 Seismic Study of Earth Dams by Mononobe et al. 388
16.2.4 Studies on Rockfill Dams by Clough and Pirtz 389
16.3 Fluid Structure Interaction 392
16.3.1 Studies Using Jacobsen's Table at Stanford University 392
16.3.2 A Study of Elevated Water Tanks by A.C. Ruge 394
16.4 Bridges 396
16.4.1 Dynamic Model Studies of the Ruck-A-Chucky Cable-Stayed Bridge 396
16.4.2 Curved Highway Bridges 399
16.4.3 The International Guadiana Bridge 400
16.4.4 Further Studies on Pile Foundations for Bridges 401
16.4.5 Reinforced Concrete Bridge Columns 402
16.5 General Structures 402
16.5.1 Nuclear Reactor Cores 402
16.5.2 Concrete Dam Studies at ISMES 404
16.5.3 Tall Buildings 405
16.5.4 Infrastructure -- Fitness-for-Purpose 406
References 407
17 Development, Production and Implementation of Low Cost Rubber Bearings 409
17.1 Introduction 410
17.2 Design of New Rubber Bearings for the Pestalozzi School Building 411
17.2.1 Description of Structural System of Base Isolated Part of Pestalozzi School 411
17.2.2 Computation of Stiffness Characteristics of New Bearings 413
17.2.3 Initial Characteristics of Isolators 414
17.2.4 Definition of Seismic Input 415
17.2.5 Dynamic Response of the Structure 416
17.3 Production of Rubber Bearings 419
17.3.1 Small Bearings 420
17.3.2 Testing and Selection of High Damping Rubber 421
17.3.3 Large Bearings 425
17.3.4 Testing of Large Prototype Bearings 426
17.3.5 Final Proportions and Mass Production of the Bearings 428
17.3.6 Problems in Production of Bearings 429
17.4 Replacement of Bearings 431
17.5 Conclusions 433
References 434
Part VI Managing Risk in Seismic Regions 436
18 Investing Today for a Safer Future: How the Hyogo Framework for Action can Contribute to Reducing Deaths During Earthquakes 437
18.1 Introduction 438
18.2 Brief Summary and Review of the Hyogo Framework 439
18.3 Priority One: Ensure that Disaster Risk Reduction Is a National and a Local Priority with a Strong Institutional Basis for Implementation 440
18.4 Priority Two: Identify, Assess and Monitor Disaster Risks and Enhance Early Warning Systems 441
18.5 Priority Three: Use Knowledge, Innovation and Education to Build a Culture of Safety and Resilience at All Levels 442
18.6 Priority Four: Reduce the Underlying Risk Factors 444
18.7 Priority Five: Strengthen Disaster Preparedness for Effective Response at All Levels 445
18.8 Review of Progress in Implementation of the Hyogo Framework and Current Status of Risk A summary of findings from the review carried out by the Global Assessment Report on DRR is presented in Annex 1. 445
18.9 Can Reducing Risk from Earthquakes be Included in Adaptation to Climate Change? 449
18.10 Challenges Ahead 452
18.11 Annex 1: Review of Progress in the Implementation of the Hyogo Framework for Action (HFA), Chapter Five of the Global Assessment Report on Disaster Risk Reduction 2009: Risk and Poverty in a Changing Climate, Invest Today for a Safer Tomorrow 454
Summary of Findings 454
18.11 Annex 2: The Hyogo Framework for Action: Strategic Goals, Priorities for Action, Core Indicators and Levels of Progress 455
Five Priorities for Action and 22 Core Indicators 455
19 Emergency and Post-emergency Management of the Abruzzi Earthquake 458
19.1 Introduction 458
19.2 Emergency Management 460
19.2.1 Search and Rescue and Assistance to the Population 463
19.2.2 Technical Activities 466
19.3 Post-emergency 473
19.3.1 Long-term Temporary Housing 473
19.3.1.1 C.A.S.E. 475
19.3.1.2 M.A.P. 477
19.3.2 Schools 477
19.3.3 Monumental Buildings 481
19.3.4 Lifelines 483
19.4 Reconstruction Start 484
19.4.1 Rules for Private Buildings 485
19.4.2 Historical Centers and Cultural Heritage 486
19.4.3 Seismic Microzonation 486
19.5 Conclusion 488
References 488
20 LAquila 6th April 2009 Earthquake: Emergency and Post-emergency Activities on Cultural Heritage Buildings 490
20.1 Introduction 490
20.2 Damage Surveys 492
20.2.1 Observed Damage 493
20.3 Emergency Interventions for Safety Measures 495
20.3.1 Type of Interventions 496
20.4 Structural Monitoring of Damaged Heritage Buildings 499
20.4.1 St. Mark Church 500
20.4.1.1 Provisional Strengthening Interventions and Monitoring 501
20.4.2 The Spanish Fortress 503
20.4.2.1 Provisional Strengthening Interventions and Monitoring 504
20.5 Procedure for the Analysis of Aggregate Buildings 506
20.6 Selection of Techniques and Materials for the Interventions 511
20.7 Conclusions 513
References 514
21 Rapid Earthquake Loss Assessment After Damaging Earthquakes 517
21.1 Introduction 517
21.2 Earthquake Loss Estimation 519
21.3 Earthquake Loss Estimation Software Tools 521
21.4 Global and Regional Earthquake Rapid Loss Assessment Systems 525
21.4.1 PAGER -- Prompt Assessment of Global Earthquakes for Response 525
21.4.2 GDACS -- The Global Disaster Alert and Coordination System 526
21.4.3 WAPMERR -- World Agency of Planetary Monitoring and Earthquake Risk Reduction 526
21.4.4 NERIES Project -- ELER: Earthquake Loss Estimation Routine for the Euro-Med Region 526
21.4.4.1 Demographic and Building Inventory 528
21.4.4.2 Building Damage Assessment 529
21.4.4.3 Casualty Assessment 529
21.5 Local (Country, City and Facility Specific) Earthquake Rapid Loss Assessment Systems 530
21.5.1 Earthquake Rapid Reporting System in Taiwan 530
21.5.2 USGS-Shake Cast 531
21.5.3 Istanbul Earthquake Rapid Response System 532
21.5.4 Rapid Response and Disaster Management System in Yokohama, Japan 535
21.5.5 Tokyo Gas -- Supreme System 536
21.6 Conclusions 537
References 537
22 Catastrophe Micro-Insurance for Those at the Bottom of the Pyramid: Bridging the Last Mile 542
22.1 Introduction 542
22.2 A Look at Vulnerabilities of Those at the BOP 543
22.3 Micro-Insurance Pilot Projects 546
22.3.1 Rural China Double Trigger Earthquake Micro-Insurance Program 547
22.3.2 Micro-Insurance Product to Manage Earthquake Risk in Gujarat, India 550
22.4 Concluding Remarks 553
References 554
Index 555