Measurement in Sport and Exercise Psychology

Gershon Tenenbaum, PhD, is a professor of educational psychology at Florida State University in Tallahassee, where he teaches courses on measurement in sport and exercise. He previously served as the director of the Center of Research and Sport Medicine at the Wingate Institute in Israel and was the coordinator of the sport psychology program at the University of Southern Queensland in Australia. Tenenbaum’s research on measurement and statistical methods in the domain of sport and exercise psychology has been widely published, and he has published over 300 articles in peer-refereed journals and book chapters in leading journals in psychology, sport and exercise psychology, sports medicine, and sport sciences. In addition, he has edited and written several handbooks and books, including the Handbook of Sport and Exercise Psychology, Third Edition (with Robert Eklund), Case Studies in Applied Psychophysiology: Neurofeedback and Biofeedback Treatments for Advancesin Human Performance (with William Edmonds), The Cultural Turn in Sport and Exercise Psychology (with Tatiana Ryba and Robert Schinke), Brain and Body in Sport and Exercise: Biofeedback Applications in Performance Enhancement (with Boris Blumenstein and Michael Bar-Eli), The Practice of Sport Psychology, and Research Methodology in Sport andExercise Sciences: Quantitative and Qualitative Methods (with Marcy Driscoll). Tenenbaum was the president of the International Society of Sport Psychology (ISSP) and a fellow of both the National Academy of Kinesiology (NAK) and the Association for Applied Sport Psychology (AASP). Tenenbaum was the editor of the International Journal of Sport Psychology and the International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology. Each year, he organizes several sessions and symposia on measurement issues at conferences in the United States and abroad. In 2011, Tenenbaum received the Scientific Award for Scientific Achievement from the American Psychological Association (APA) Division 47 (Sport and Exercise Psychology division). In 2005, he was awarded the Benjamin S. Bloom Professorship from Florida State University and the Presidential Award from the International Society of Sport Psychology. In 2002, he was named a Distinguished Sport Science Scholar Lecturer in sport and exercise psychology for the University of Utah. He was also the recipient of the International Society of Sport Psychology Honor Award in 1997.Tenenbaum holds a doctorate in measurement and statistics from the University of Chicago. He resides in Tallahassee and enjoys traveling to conferences throughout the world, visiting his homeland of Israel, and watching competitive sport Robert C. Eklund, PhD, is a professor of sport psychology in the department of educational psychology and learning systems at Florida State University in Tallahassee, where he was recently named the Mode L. Stone Distinguished Professor of Sport Psychology. He earned his doctoral degree in exercise and sport science with a specialization in sport and exercise psychology from the University of North Carolina at Greensboro. He is a fellow of both the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) and the National Academy of Kinesiology (NAK). Eklund has published over 60 articles in referred journals; coedited (with Gershon Tenenbaum) the prestigious Handbook of Sport Psychology, Third Edition; coauthored two measurement manuals; and authored or coauthored 12 book chapters in the area of sport and exercise psychology. Eklund has presented his research and participated as a keynote lecturer and invited colloquia participant at numerous conferences worldwide. Eklund is the current editor in chief of the Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology and has served in that capacity since January 2003. He has also served as associate editor for the Journal of Applied Sport Psychology and psychology section editor for Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport. In addition to providing editorial review services for a range of scholarly journals, Eklund currently serves as an editorial board member for The Sport Psychologist; Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology; Pamukkale Journal of Sport Sciences; and Hacettepe Journal of Sport Sciences. In the past, he has served on the editorial boards for the Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology and the Journal of Applied Sport Psychology. Eklund resides in Tallahassee with his wife, Colleen, and two sons, Garth and Kieran. He enjoys their sport involvement immensely as well as their interest in spending sunny afternoons fishing at the beach. Akihito Kamata, PhD, is a professor of psychometrics and educational measurement in the department of educational methodology, policy, and leadership at the University of Oregon. Before joining the University of Oregon in 2009, he was on faculty at Florida State University for 11 years, where he also served as the chair of the department of educational psychology and learning systems. Kamata's primary research interest is implementation of item-level test data analysis methodology through item response theory modeling, multilevel modeling, and structural equation modeling. Kamata has done pioneering work on multilevel item response theory modeling, which is represented by his 2001 publication in the Journal of Educational Measurement, a special issue on multilevel measurement modeling in the Journal of Applied Measurement in 2005, and several book chapters on the topic, including a chapter in the Handbook of Advanced Multilevel Analysis (2011). He has other publications on psychometrics, measurement theory, and applied measurement, including articles in the Journal of Educational Measurement, Applied Psychological Measurement, Structural Equation Modeling, and Psychometrika.

Chapter 1. Introduction to Measurement in Sport and Exercise Psychology

Gershon Tenenbaum, Robert Eklund, and Akihito Kamata

Concepts, Items, and Responses

Steps in Designing Measures

Assigning Meaning to Measures

Introspection and Measurement: Reliability and Validity

Conclusion

Chapter 2. Measurement Practice in Sport and Exercise Psychology: A Historical, Comparative, and Psychometric View

Weimo Zhu

Key Developments in Educational and Psychological Measurement

Progress and Status of Measurement in Sport and Exercise Psychology

Conclusion

Acknowledgements

Part I. Measurement Basics, Methods, and Issues

Measurement Basics

Chapter 3. Reliability

Brandon K. Vaughn, Hwa-Young Lee, and Akihito Kamata

The Theory of Reliability

Estimating the Reliability Coefficient

Standard Error of Measurement

Evaluating the Magnitudes of Reliability Coefficients

Improving Reliability

Relationship to Validity

Reliability for Multidimensional Instruments

Misconceptions and Misuses of Reliability

Conclusion

Chapter 4. Conceptualizing Validity

Brandon K. Vaughn and Sarah R. Daniel

Validity in Premodern Era

Collecting Evidence of Validity

Validity in Modern Era

Issues of Validity in Research Designs

Conclusion

Chapter 5. Validating Scores from New Assessments: A Comparison of Classical Test Theory and Item Response Theory

Yaakov Petscher and Christopher Schatschneider

Level of Analysis

Item Difficulty

Item Discrimination

Item Response Theory Parameter Invariance

Constructing the Assessment

Sample Size

Conclusion

Chapter 6. Factorial Invariance: Tools and Concepts for Strengthening Research

Ryne Estabrook

Factorial Invariance

Configural Invariance

Metric Invariance

Alternative Approaches

Fitting Invariance Models

Ordinal Data

Conclusion

Acknowledgments

Appendix A: Coding Example of Mplus

Appendix B: Coding Example of OpenMx

Chapter 7. Modeling Change Over Time

Kevin J. Grimm and Nilam Ram

Sample Data

Analysis

Latent Growth Curve Modeling

Conclusion

Acknowledgments

Appendix

Chapter 8. Rasch Modeling in Sort

Bernd Strauss, Dirk Busch, and Gershon Tenenbaum

The Basic Idea of the Rasch Model

An Example for the Use of the Ordinal Rasch Model

Extensions and Generalizations of Rasch Modeling

The Use of the Mixed Rasch Model: An Example

Probabilistic Test Models in Sport Psychology and Exercise Sports

Conclusion

Measurement Methods

Chapter 9. Idiosyncratic Measures in Sport

William A. Edmonds, Michael B. Johnson, Gershon Tenenbaum, and Akihito Kamata

Theoretical and Conceptual Framework

Eight-Step Idiosyncratic Approach

Conclusion

Chapter 10. Dynamic Assessment in Sport

Thomas Schack

Dynamic Assessment

Dynamic Assessment Concept and Procedures Dynamic Assessment of Motor Learning Potential

Further Areas for Applying Dynamic Assessment in Sport Psychology

Conclusion

Acknowledgments

Chapter 11. Verbal Reports of Cognitive Processes

David Eccles

Validity of Verbal Reports of Cognitive Processes

Methods Used in Studies of Psychological Skill Use With Regard to the Verbal Report Framework Proposed by Ericsson and Simon (1980)

Summary of Methods Used in Studies of Psychological Skill Use With Regard to the Verbal Report Framework

Concerns Over Using Verbal Report Methods

Conclusion

Acknowledgment

Chapter 12. Making Sense of Words and Stories in Qualitative Research: Some Strategies for Consideration

Brett Smith and Andrew Sparks

Analysing the Whats: Content

Analysing the Hows: Performative Narrative Analysis

Showing the Whats and Hows: Creative Analytic Practices

Conclusion

Acknowledgments

Measurement Issues

Chapter 13. Developmentally Informed Measurement in Sport and Exercise Psychology Research

Alan L. Smith, Travis E. Dorsch, and Eva V. Monsma

Cognitive Abilities and Structures

Social Development

Biological Maturation

Change in Multiple Domains

Conclusion

Chapter 14. Cultural Sport Psychology: Special Measurement Considerations

Tatiana V Ryba, Robert J. Schinke and Natalia B. Stambulova

Assumptions and Principles of Cultural Sport Psychology

Measuring Culture

Conclusion

Chapter 15. Synthesizing Measurement Outcomes through Meta-Analysis

Betsy J. Becker and Soyeon Ahn

What is Meta-Analysis?

Meta-Analysis in Sport and Exercise Psychology

Measurement Issues in Meta-Analysis

Conclusion

Chapter 16. Ethics: Assessment and Measurement in Sport and Exercise Psychology

Jack C. Watson, Edward F. Etzel and Justine Vosloo

Ethics and Ethics Codes

Use of Technology

Billing for Services

Cultural Issues

Conclusion

Appendix: Codes of Ethics for Related Organizations

Part II. Cognition, Perception, and Motivation Measurement

Cognition Measurement

Chapter 17. Cognitive Measures Related to Exercise and Physical Activity

Jennifer L. Etnier

Theoretical Framework

Limitations and Sources of Confusion

Primary Measurement Tools

Examples Studies

Recommendations for Researchers and Practitioners

Chapter 18. Anticipation and Decision Making: Skills, Methods, and Measures

Andrew M. Williams and Bruce Abernethy

Anticipation in Sport: Capturing Performance

Decision Making in Sport: Capturing Performance

Anticipation and Decision Making: Identifying Causal Mechanisms Using Process Measures of Performance

Recommendations for Researchers and Practitioners

Chapter 19. Measuring Mental Representations

Thomas Schack

Mental Representations

Cognitive Representation and Performance: Perspectives and Methods

Mental Representations: A Theoretical Framework

Measurement of Mental Representations

Measuring Mental Representations in Sport

Measuring Mental Representations in Sport: Insight From Empirical Studies

Recommendations for Researchers and Practitioners

Self-Perception Measurement

Chapter 20. Physical Self-Concept

Herbert W. Marsh and Jacqueline H.S. Cheng

Construct Definition of Physical Self-Concept

Dimensions and Sources of Confusion: Self-Esteem Versus Self-Concept and Self-Efficacy

Tools to Measure the Physical Self

Examples from the Literature

Recommendations for Researchers and Practitioners

Chapter 21. Exercise and Self-Perception Constructs

Catherine Sabiston, James R. Whitehead, and Robert C. Eklund

Self-Esteem and Self-Concept

Exercise Identity

Physical Activity Self-Definitions

Exerciser Self-Schemata

Possible Selves

Dimensions and Sources of Confusion

Recommendations for Researchers and Practitioners

Chapter 22. Exercise-Related Self-Efficacy

Edward McAuley, Siobhan M. White, Emily L. Mailey, and Thomas R. Wojcicki

Self-Efficacy and Social Cognitive Theory

Primary Self-Efficacy Measures

Evidence for Support: Examples From the Literature

Further Issues Recommendations for Researchers and Practitioners

Acknowledgments

Chapter 23. Self-Efficacy and Collective-Efficacy

Lori Dithurbide and Deborah L. Feltz

Definitions

Theoretical and Conceptual Framework

Sources of Collective Efficacy Information

Dimensions and Sources of Confusion in Self-Efficacy and Collective Efficacy

Guidelines for Constructing Self- Efficacy and Collective Efficacy Scales

Examples From the Literature

Recommendations for Researchers and Practitioners

Chapter 24. Effort Perception

Selen Razon, Jasmin Hutchinson, and Gershon Tenenbaum

A Historical Perspective on Perceived Exertion

Modern Psychophysics

Models of Psychobiological Responses to Exercise

Measurement of Perceived Effort

Recommendations for Researchers and Practitioners

Motivation Measurement

Chapter 25. Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation in Sport and Exercise

Robert J. Vallerand, Eric D. Donahue, Marc-Andre K. Lafreniere

Defining Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation

The Nature of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation

Multidimensional View of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation at Different Levels of Generality

Evaluation of Measures of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation in Sport and Exercise

Recommendations for Researchers and Practitioners

Chapter 26. Exercise Motivation

Philip M. Wilson

Key Concepts and Theoretical Frameworks

Theory and Measurement

Exercise Motivation Instruments

Recommendations for Researchers and Practitioners

Acknowledgments

Chapter 27. Achievement Motivation Processes

David E. Conroy and Amanda L. Hyde

History of Achievement Motivation Theories

Review of Achievement Motive Measures

Review of Achievement Goal Measures

Other Measures

Recommendations for Researchers and Practitioners

Acknowledgments

Part III. Emotion, Affect, and Coping Measurement

Chapter 28. Affect, Mood, and Emotion

Panteleimon Ekkekakis

Choosing a Measure: A Three-Step Process

Understanding the Differences Between Affect, Emotion, And Mood

Hierarchical Structure of the Affective Domain: An Integrative Framework

Review of Specific Measures

Recommendations for Researchers and Practitioners

Chapter 29. Emotional Reactivity

Christopher M. Janelle and Kelly M. Naugle

Definitions and Dimensions of the Variable Construct

Dimensions and Sources of Confusion

Theoretical and Conceptual Frameworks

Overview of Emotion Measures

Recommendations for Researchers and PractitionersAcknowledgments

Chapter 30. Flow

Susan Jackson and Robert C. Eklund

Theoretical Framework

Flow Dimensions

Sources of Confusion in the Flow Construct

Measurement Tools

Examples From the Literature

Recommendations for Researchers and Practitioners

Chapter 31. Burnout

Robert C. Eklund, Tom Raedeke, Allen L. Smith, and Scott Cresswell

Conceptualizing Athlete Burnout as a Syndrome

Sources of Confusion About Athlete Burnout

Burnout Measurement Tools for Athletes

Sample Studies Using the ABQ From the Literature

Recommendations for Researchers and Practitioners

Chapter 32. Bayesian Approach of Measuring Competitive Crisis

Michael Bar-Eli and Gershon Tenenbaum

Bayesian Notions in Psychology. An Approach to Judgment and Decision Making

Theory of Psychological Performance Crisis

Bayes’ Theorem: A Measurement Tool for Developing the Individual Performance Psychological Crisis

Recommendations to Researchers and Practitioners

Chapter 33. Psychological Skills

Robert Weinberg and Samuel Forlenza

History and Theoretical Foundations

Issues and Limitations in the Measurement and Assessment of Psychological Skills

Psychological Skill Assessment and Measurement

Individual Assessments of Psychological Skills

Recommendations for Researchers and Practitioners

Chapter 34. Coping in Sport and Exercise

Ronnie Lidor, Peter R.E. Crocker, and Amber D. Mosewich

Coping Concept and Definition

Instruments and Questionnaires Assessing Coping Skills

Preperformance Coping Strategies: The Case of Self-Paced Tasks

Recommendations for Researchers and Practitioners

Part IV. Social and Behavioral Measurement

Chapter 35. Cohesion

Albert V. Carron, Mark A. Eys, and Luc J. Martin

Definitions of Cohesion

Conceptual Framework for Cohesion

Sources of Confusion

Questionnaires for Assessing Cohesion

Overview of Questionnaire Use

Recommendations for Researchers and Practitioners

Chapter 36. Sequential Analysis of Team Communications and Effects on Team Performance

Allan Jeong

Introduction to Team Communications

Seven-Step Procedure for Sequentially Analyzing Team Communications

Recommendations for Researchers and Practitioners

Chapter 37. Models and Measurement of Leadership in Sport

Packianathan Chellandurai

Theoretical Frameworks of Leadership in Sport

Sources of Confusion

Measures of Leadership

Measures of Decision Style

Measurement of Autonomy-Supportive Behavior

Confusion in Purposes of Sport Participation

Recommendations for Researchers and Practitioners

Chapter 38. Moral Behavior

Maria Kavussanu and Ian D. Boardley

Definitions of the Construct

Theoretical and Conceptual Framework

Dimensions and Sources of Confusion

Main Tools for Measuring the Variables

Examples From the Literature

Recommendations for Researchers and Practitioners

Chapter 39. Behavioral Measurement in Exercise Psychology

Claudio R. Nigg, Patricia J. Jordan, and Angela Atkins

Concept Definitions

Conceptual Issues

Tools for Measuring Physical Activity

Recommendations for Researchers and Practitioners