Waste Valorisation

Editors Carol Sze Ki Lin, Associate Professor, School of Energy and Environment, City University of Hong Kong. Guneet Kaur, Assistant Professor, Department of Biology, Hong Kong Baptist University, Kowloon Tong, Hong Kong and Department of Civil Engineering, York University, Toronto, Canada. Chong Li, Associate Research Fellow, Shenzhen Branch, Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture, Genome Analysis Laboratory of the Ministry of Agriculture, Agricultural Genomics Institute at Shenzhen, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shenzhen, China. Xiaofeng Yang, Associate Professor, School of Biology and Biological Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, China. Series Editor Christian V. Stevens, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Belgium

List of Contributors xiii

Series Preface xvii

Preface xix

1 Overview ofWaste Valorisation Concepts from a Circular Economy Perspective 1
Jinhua Mou, Chong Li, Xiaofeng Yang, Guneet Kaur and Carol Sze Ki Lin

1.1 Introduction 1

1.2 Development of (Bio)Chemical Process for Utilization of Waste as a Bioresource 4

1.2.1 Mechanical Pretreatment 5

1.2.2 Physical Pretreatment 5

1.2.3 Chemical Pretreatment 5

1.2.4 Biological Pretreatment 6

1.3 Process Integration for Waste-Based Biorefinery 6

1.3.1 Food Waste Biorefinery 7

1.3.2 Agricultural Waste Biorefinery 7

1.3.3 Industrial Waste Biorefinery 8

1.3.4 Wastewater Biorefinery 8

1.4 Closed Loop Recirculation in a Bio-based Economy 8

1.5 Conclusions and Future Trends 9

References 10

2 Waste as a Bioresource 13
Gayatri Suresh, Joseph Sebastian and Satinder Kaur Brar

2.1 Introduction 13

2.2 Waste Streams and Their Suitability as Feedstock for Valorisation: Is All Waste a Resource? 14

2.3 (Bio)diversity and Variability of Waste Feedstock 16

2.3.1 Agro-industrial Wastes 16

2.3.2 Municipal Solid Wastes 18

2.3.3 Livestock Wastes 19

2.3.4 Industrial Wastes 21

2.4 Drivers, Policies, and Markets for Value-added Waste-derived Products 23

2.5 Conclusions and Future Trends 25

Acknowledgements 26

References 26

3 Treatment of Waste 33
Ravindran Balasubramani, Vasanthy Muthunarayanan, Karthika Arumugam, Rajiv Periakaruppan, Archana Singh, Soon Woong Chang, Thamaraiselvi Chandran, Gopal Shankar Singh and Selvakumar Muniraj

3.1 Introduction 33

3.2 Solid Waste Management 34

3.2.1 E-waste Management 34

3.2.2 Hazardous Waste Management 35

3.2.3 Biomedical Waste Management 35

3.2.4 Plastic Waste Management 35

3.2.5 Solid Waste Management Options 35

3.3 General Approach for Waste Treatment and Conversion to Value-added Products: Biochemical, Mechanical, and Thermochemical 36

3.3.1 Conventional Treatment 36

3.3.2 Biological/Biochemical Treatment 37

3.3.3 Thermal Methods 40

3.3.4 Open Burning 40

3.3.5 Mechanical Treatment 40

3.4 Factors Influencing Selection of an Appropriate Valorisation Technique for Specific Waste Types 42

3.4.1 Case Study of Paper Waste Recycling 42

3.4.2 Deinking Process 42

3.4.3 Paper Deinking Residue 43

3.5 Conventional and Novel Techniques: Overall Comparison in Terms of Energy Consumption, Waste Stream Generation and Cost 44

3.5.1 Pyrolysis 44

3.5.2 Gasification 44

3.5.3 Incineration 44

3.6 Energy Consumption, Waste Stream Generation, and Costs of Conventional and Novel Waste Treatment Technologies 45

3.7 Conclusions and Future Trends 45

Acknowledgement 46

References 46

4 Valorisation of Agricultural Waste Residues 51
Srinivas Mettu, Pobitra Halder, Savankumar Patel, Sazal Kundu, Kalpit Shah, Shunyu Yao, Zubeen Hathi, Khai Lun Ong, Sandya Athukoralalage, Namita Roy Choudhury, Naba Kumar Dutta and Carol Sze Ki Lin

4.1 Introduction 51

4.2 Agricultural Waste Definition, Composition, Variability, and Associated Policies and Regulations 53

4.2.1 Agricultural Waste from Farming 55

4.2.2 Agricultural Wastes from Livestock 56

4.2.3 Agricultural Waste Availability 57

4.3 Conventional Techniques – Anaerobic Digestion, Pyrolysis, Gasification, and Solvent Treatment/Extraction 58

4.3.1 Anaerobic Digestion 58

4.3.2 Solvent Treatment 63

4.3.3 Gasification 65

4.3.4 Pyrolysis 67

4.4 Novel Techniques and Envisioned Product Streams: A New Perspective 71

4.5 Case Study: Yard Waste Management 74

4.5.1 Background of Yard Waste in Hong Kong 74

4.5.2 Conventional Yard Waste Reduction and Treatment Strategy 75

4.5.3 Novel Techniques and Strategies for Yard Waste Treatment 76

4.6 Conclusions and Future Trends 76

Acknowledgements 77

References 77

5 Valorisation of Woody Biomass 87
Md Khairul Islam, Chengyu Dong, Hsien-Yi Hsu, Carol Sze Ki Lin and Shao-Yuan Leu

5.1 Generation of Woody Biomass 87

5.2 General Classification and Properties of Woods 88

5.3 Wood Chemistry 89

5.3.1 Cellulose 89

5.3.2 Hemicelluloses 90

5.3.3 Lignin 91

5.3.4 Extractives 92

5.4 Chemical Composition Analysis 93

5.4.1 Structural Carbohydrates and Lignin 93

5.4.2 Extractives 94

5.5 Pretreatment 94

5.6 Saccharification and Fermentation 97

5.7 New Functions of Wood Residues 100

5.7.1 Wood–Plastic Composite for Construction Purposes 100

5.7.2 Cellulose Nanomaterials 100

5.7.3 Wood Extractives 102

5.8 Conclusions and Future Trends 102

Acknowledgement 102

References 103

6 Recovery of Nutrients and Transformations of Municipal/Domestic Food Waste 109
Divyani Panwar, Parmjit S. Panesar, Gisha Singla, Meena Krishania and Avinash Thakur

6.1 Introduction 109

6.2 Characteristics of Food Waste and its Supply Chain 111

6.2.1 Characteristics of Waste Generated from Food Industries 113

6.2.2 Food Waste Supply Chain 114

6.3 Recovery of Valuable Products from Anaerobic Digestion of Food Waste 116

6.3.1 Biogas 118

6.3.2 Digestate 119

6.4 Novel Approaches and Obtainable Products: Biotechnological Processes and Chemical Transformations 124

6.4.1 Chemical Transformations 125

6.4.2 Biotechnological Approaches 130

6.5 Case Study: Production of Methane via Anaerobic Digestion of Food Waste 139

6.5.1 Anaerobic Digestion 140

6.5.2 TEAM Digester for Domestic Food Waste Digestion 143

6.6 Conclusions and Future Trends 144

References 145

7 Bioconversion of Processing Waste from Agro-Food Industries to Bioethanol: Creating a Sustainable and Circular Economy 161
Deepak Kumar and Vijay Singh

7.1 Introduction 161

7.2 Bioconversion Technologies for Bioethanol Production 164

7.2.1 Ethanol Production from Starchy Feedstock (First-Generation Bioethanol) 164

7.2.2 Ethanol from Lignocellulosic Biomass (Second-Generation Bioethanol) 167

7.3 Use of Processing Waste to Produce Ethanol 170

7.3.1 Citrus Peel Waste (CPW) 170

7.3.2 Peel Residue Waste from Other Food Industries 171

7.3.3 Waste from the Brewing Industry 172

7.3.4 Other Processing Wastes 173

7.4 Use of Processing Waste to Enhance Ethanol Yields 174

7.4.1 Improving Fermentation of Dry Fractionated Corn 174

7.4.2 Processing of DDGS to Enhance Ethanol Yields 177

7.5 Conclusions and Future Trends 178

References 179

8 Challenges with Biomass Waste Valorisation 183
Guihua Yan, Yunchao Feng, Sishi Long, Xianhai Zeng, Yong Sun, Xing Tang and Lu Lin

8.1 Introduction 183

8.2 The Pre-Preparation Technologies of Biomass Waste 184

8.2.1 “Cellulose-First” Biorefinery Technologies 185

8.2.2 “Lignin-First” Biorefinery Technologies 185

8.2.3 “Lignin and Hemicellulose-First” Biorefinery Technologies 186

8.2.4 “Cellulose and Hemicellulose-First” Biorefinery Technologies 186

8.3 Handling of Emerging Biomass Wastes by Newly Developed Techniques 188

8.3.1 Catalytic Chemistry Technologies 188

8.3.2 Thermochemical Conversion Technologies 189

8.3.3 Biochemical Technologies 190

8.3.4 Integration with Existing Technologies and Economic Viability 190

8.4 Transforming Biomass Waste to Cellulose by New Techniques 191

8.4.1 Cellulose Extraction or Purification Techniques from Biomass Waste 192

8.4.2 Cellulose Micro/Nanomerization Technologies 192

8.5 Transforming Biomass Waste to Lignin by New Technologies 197

8.6 Conclusions and Future Trends 198

Acknowledgements 199

References 199

9 Lifecycle Approaches for Evaluating Textile Biovalorisation Processes: Sustainable Decision-making in a Circular Economy 203
Karpagam Subramanian, Shauhrat S. Chopra, Cakin Ezgi, Xiaotong Li and Carol Sze Ki Lin

9.1 Introduction 203

9.2 Literature Review 206

9.2.1 Circular Economy and Sustainable Development 206

9.2.2 Textile Industry – Sustainability Issues and Recycling 206

9.3 Methods 208

9.3.1 Description of Environmental Assessment 208

9.3.2 Description of Social Assessment 209

9.4 Case Study 211

9.4.1 Recovery of PET Fiber from Cotton–Polyester Blended Textile Waste 211

9.4.2 System Description of the Biorecycling Method 212

9.4.3 Life Cycle Inventory 214

9.5 Results and Discussion 215

9.5.1 Environmental Sustainability of Bio-based PET Fiber 215

9.5.2 Social and Economic Sustainability of Bio-based PET Fiber 217

9.6 Conclusions and Future Trends 218

Acknowledgement 219

References 219

10 Circular Waste-Based Biorefinery Development 223
Raffel Dharma Patria, Xiaotong Li, Huaimin Wang, Chenyu Du, Carol Sze Ki Lin and Guneet Kaur

10.1 Introduction 223

10.2 Transitioning from Current Linear to Stronger Circular Economy Models 226

10.2.1 Integration of Circular Economy and Sustainable Development 226

10.2.2 Requirements for Transition to a Circular Economy 227

10.3 Case Study 1: Circular Textile Waste-based Biorefinery for Production of Chemicals, Materials, and Fuels 229

10.3.1 Need for a Circular Textile Waste-based Biorefinery 229

10.3.2 Circular Textile Biorefinery 230

10.4 Case Study 2: Circular Food Waste-based Biorefinery for Production of Chemicals, Materials, and Fuels 233

10.4.1 Circular Bioconversion of Food Waste into Polyethylene Furanoate (PEF) 235

10.4.2 Circular Bioconversion of Food Waste into Biosurfactant 240

10.5 Conclusions and Future Trends 246

Acknowledgements 246

References 247

Index 253