Sustainable Water Treatment

Siddhartha Moulik, PhD, received his PhD from CSIR-Indian Institute Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India. With years of experience, he has worked on projects with some of the most prestigious companies and laboratories in the industry. He has published 23 articles in journals of international repute, filed three patents, and published 15 book chapters. He is also the recipient of 15 prestigious national awards, and he has published two books with Scrivener Publishing. Aditi Mullick, PhD, received her PhD from the Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, India. She has published ten articles in journals of international repute, filed two patents, and published one book thus far, also with Scrivener Publishing. She is also the recipient of seven prestigious national awards and fellowships. Anirban Roy, PhD, is an assistant professor in the Department of Chemical Engineering at BITS Pilani Goa campus. He has published 20 articles in journals of international repute, filed eight patents, and published one book thus far. He also has ample industrial experience, as well as academic experience, in the field.

Introduction xix

Section I: Advanced Oxidation Processes 1

1 Advanced Oxidation Processes: Fundamental, Technologies, Applications and Recent Advances 3
Akshat Khandelwal and Saroj Sundar Baral

1.1 Introduction 4

1.2 Background and Global Trend of Advanced Oxidation Process 5

1.3 Advanced Oxidation Systems 8

1.3.1 Ozone-Based AOP 9

1.3.2 UV/H2O2 10

1.3.3 Radiation 10

1.3.4 Fenton Reaction 12

1.3.5 Photocatalytic 13

1.3.6 Electrochemical Oxidation 14

1.4 Comparison and Challenges of AOP Technologies 15

1.5 Conclusion and Perspective 19

References 20

2 A Historical Approach for Integration of Cavitation Technology with Conventional Wastewater Treatment Processes 27
Bhaskar Bethi, G. B. Radhika, Shirish H. Sonawane, Shrikant Barkade and Ravindra Gaikwad

2.1 Introduction to Cavitation for Wastewater Treatment 28

2.1.1 Mechanistic Aspects of Ultrasound Cavitation 28

2.1.2 Mechanistic Aspects of Hydrodynamic Cavitation 29

2.2 Importance of Integrating Water Treatment Technology in Present Scenario 30

2.3 Integration Ultrasound Cavitation (UC) with Conventional Treatment Techniques 31

2.3.1 Sonosorption (UC+ Adsorption) 32

2.3.2 Son-Chemical Oxidation (UC + Chemical Oxidation) 38

2.3.3 UC+Filtration 39

2.4 Integration of Hydrodynamic Cavitation (HC) with Conventional Treatment Techniques 40

2.4.1 Hydrodynamic Cavitation + Adsorption 40

2.4.2 Hydrodynamic Cavitation + Biological Oxidation 42

2.4.3 Hydrodynamic Cavitation + Chemical Treatment 43

2.5 Scale-Up Issues with Ultrasound Cavitation Process 50

2.6 Conclusion and Future Perspectives: Hydrodynamic Cavitation as a Future Technology 50

Acknowledgements 51

References 51

3 Hydrodynamic Cavitation: Route to Greener Technology for Wastewater Treatment 57
Anupam Mukherjee, Ravi Teja, Aditi Mullick, Subhankar Roy, Siddhartha Moulik and Anirban Roy

3.1 Introduction 58

3.2 Cavitation: General Perspective 72

3.2.1 Phase Transition 72

3.2.2 Types of Cavitation 73

3.2.3 Hydrodynamic Cavitation 74

3.2.4 Bubble Dynamics Model 80

3.2.4.1 Rayleigh-Plesset Equation 80

3.2.4.2 Bubble Contents 80

3.2.4.3 Nonequilibrium Effects 84

3.2.5 Physio-Chemical Effects 84

3.2.5.1 Thermodynamic Effects 85

3.2.5.2 Mechanical Effects 86

3.2.5.3 Chemical Effects 87

3.2.5.4 Biological Effects 88

3.3 Hydrodynamic Cavitation Reactors 88

3.3.1 Liquid Whistle Reactors 89

3.3.2 High-Speed Homogenizers 89

3.3.3 Micro-Fluidizers 90

3.3.4 High-Pressure Homogenizers 90

3.3.5 Orifice Plates Setup 91

3.3.5.1 Effect of the Ratio of Total Perimeter to Total Flow Area 92

3.3.5.2 Effect of Flow Area to the Cross-Sectional Area of the Pipe 92

3.3.6 Venture Device Setup 92

3.3.6.1 Effect of Divergence Angle 93

3.3.6.2 Effect of the Ratio of Throat Diameter/Height to Length 94

3.3.7 Vortex-Based HC Reactor 94

3.4 Effect of Operating Parameters of HC 94

3.4.1 Effect of Inlet Pressure 94

3.4.2 Effect of Temperature 95

3.4.3 Effect of Initial Concentration of Pollutant 96

3.4.4 Effect of Treatment Time 96

3.4.5 Effect of pH 97

3.5 Toxicity Assessment 97

3.6 Techno-Economic Feasibility 100

3.7 Applications 101

3.8 Conclusions and Thoughts About the Future 102

3.9 Acknowledgement 103

3.10 Disclosure 103

Nomenclature 103

References 105

4 Recent Trends in Ozonation Technology: Theory and Application 117
Anupam Mukherjee, Dror Avisar and Anirban Roy

4.1 Introduction 118

4.2 Fundamentals of Mass Transfer 119

4.3 Mass Transfer of Ozone in Water 125

4.3.1 Solubility of Ozone in Water 126

4.3.1.1 Model for Determining the True Solubility Concentration 126

4.3.2 Mass Transfer Model of Ozone in Water 128

4.3.3 Henry and Volumetric Mass Transfer Coefficient Determination 133

4.3.3.1 Microscopic Ozone Balance in the Gas Phase 134

4.3.3.2 Macroscopic Ozone Balance in the Gas Phase 134

4.3.3.3 Ozone Balance at Constant Ozone Concentrations 136

4.3.4 Single Bubble Model of Mass Transfer 137

4.3.5 Decomposition of Ozone in Water 144

4.3.6 Ozone Contactors and Energy Requirement 146

4.4 Factors Affecting Hydrodynamics and Mass Transfer in Bubble Column Reactor 147

4.4.1 Fluid Dynamics and Regime Analysis 148

4.4.2 Gas Holdup 149

4.4.3 Bubble Characteristics 149

4.4.4 Mass Transfer Coefficient 150

4.5 Application 150

4.6 Conclusion and Thoughts About the Future 158

Acknowledgement 158

Nomenclature 158

References 161

Section II: Nanoparticle-Based Treatment 171

5 Nanoparticles and Nanocomposite Materials for Water Treatment: Application in Fixed Bed Column Filter 173
Chhaya, Dibyanshu, Sneha Singh and Trishikhi Raychoudhury

5.1 Introduction 174

5.2 Target Contaminants: Performance of Nanoparticles and Nanocomposite Materials 178

5.2.1 Inorganic Contaminants 178

5.2.1.1 Heavy Metals 178

5.2.1.2 Nonmetallic Contaminant 195

5.2.2 Organic Contaminant 197

5.2.2.1 Organic Dyes 197

5.2.2.2 Halogenated Hydrocarbons 202

5.2.2.3 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon (PAH) 203

5.2.2.4 Miscellaneous Aromatic Pollutant 221

5.2.3 Emerging Contaminants 222

5.2.3.1 Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products 222

5.2.3.2 Miscellaneous Compounds 225

5.3 Application of Nanoparticles and Nanocomposite Materials in Fixed Bed Column Filter for Water Treatment 226

5.3.1 Fate and Transport Process of Contaminants in the Fixed Bed Column Filter 226

5.3.2 Application of Nanoparticles and Nanocomposite Materials in Fixed Bed Column Filter 228

References 231

6 Nanomaterials for Wastewater Treatment: Potential and Barriers in Industrialization 245
Snehasis Bhakta

6.1 Introduction 245

6.2 Nanomaterials in Wastewater Treatment 248

6.2.1 Nanotechnological Processes for Wastewater Treatment 249

6.2.1.1 Nanofiltration 249

6.2.1.2 Adsorption 249

6.2.1.3 Photocatalysis 249

6.2.1.4 Disinfection 250

6.2.2 Different Nanomaterials for Wastewater Treatment 250

6.2.2.1 Zerovalent Metal Nanoparticles 250

6.2.2.2 Metal Oxide Nanoparticles 251

6.2.2.3 Other Nanoparticles 252

6.3 Smart Nanomaterials: Molecularly Imprinted Polymers (MIP) 253

6.3.1 Molecularly Imprinted Polymers (MIP) 253

6.3.2 Application of MIP-Based Nanomaterials in Wastewater Treatment 254

6.3.2.1 Recognition of Pollutants 254

6.3.2.2 Removal of Pollutants 255

6.3.2.3 Catalytic Degradation of Organic Molecules 256

6.3.3 Barriers in Industrialization 257

6.4 Cheap Alternative Nanomaterials 257

6.4.1 Nanoclay for Wastewater Treatment 258

6.4.1.1 Water Filtration by Nanoclays 258

6.4.1.2 Water Treatment by Hybrid Gel 258

6.4.1.3 Nanosponges 259

6.4.2 Nanocellulose for Wastewater Treatment 259

6.4.2.1 Adsorption of Heavy Metals by Nanocellulose 260

6.4.2.2 Adsorption of Dyes by Nanocellulose 260

6.4.2.3 Barriers in Industrialization 260

6.5 Toxicity Associated with Nanotechnology in Wastewater Treatment 261

6.6 Barriers in Industrialization 262

6.7 Future Aspect and Conclusions 263

References 264

Section III: Membrane-Based Treatment 271

7 Microbial Fuel Cell Technology for Wastewater Treatment 273
Nilesh Vijay Rane, Alka Kumari, Chandrakant Holkar, Dipak V. Pinjari and Aniruddha B. Pandit

7.1 Introduction 274

7.2 Microbial Fuel Cell 276

7.2.1 Working Principle 276

7.2.2 Role of MFC Components 279

7.2.3 Performance Indicator of MFC 280

7.2.4 Design Parameters 282

7.2.5 Types of Microbial Fuel Cell 283

7.3 Recent Development in MFC Component 286

7.3.1 Recent Development in Cathode Used in MFC 286

7.3.2 Recent Development in Anode Used in MFC 291

7.3.3 Recent Developments in Membranes Used in MFC 295

7.4 MFC for Wastewater Treatment 298

7.4.1 Advantages of MFC Over Conventional Treatment 299

7.4.2 Challenges in the Wastewater Treatment Using MFC 300

7.5 Different Ways for Increasing the Throughput of MFC 301

7.5.1 Big Reactor Size 301

7.5.2 Stacking 302

7.5.3 Cathode 303

7.5.4 Anode 303

7.5.5 Separating Material 304

7.5.6 Harnessing Output Energy 304

7.5.7 Increasing Long-Term Stability 305

7.5.8 Coupling of MFC with Other Techniques 305

7.6 Different Case Studies Indicating Commercial Use of MFC 306

7.7 Other Applications of MFC 310

7.8 Conclusions and Recommendations (Future Work) 311

References 313

8 Ceramic Membranes in Water Treatment: Potential and Challenges for Technology Development 325
Debarati Mukherjee and Sourja Ghosh

8.1 Introduction 326

8.1.1 Background and Current State-of-the-Art 326

8.1.2 Ceramic Membranes: An Approach to Trade-Off the Bridge Between Theoretical Research and Industrial Applications 327

8.1.3 Industrial Wastewater Treatment 329

8.1.4 Domestic Wastewater Treatment 341

8.2 Treatment of Contaminated Groundwater and Drinking Water 348

8.2.1 Arsenic Contaminated Water 348

8.2.2 Treatment of Fluoride Contaminated Water 350

8.2.3 Treatment of Nitrate Contaminated Water 351

8.2.4 Treatment of Water Spiked with Emerging Contaminants 352

8.2.5 Treatment of Water Contaminated with Pathogens 354

8.3 Classification of Filtration Based on Configuration 357

8.3.1 Direct Membrane Filtration 357

8.3.2 Hybrid Approaches 360

8.4 Pilot-Scale Studies 368

8.5 Challenges of Ceramic Membranes 369

8.6 Conclusion and Future Scope of Ceramic Membranes 370

References 371

9 Membrane Distillation for Acidic Wastewater Treatment 383
Sarita Kalla, Rakesh Baghel, Sushant Upadhyaya and Kailash Singh

9.1 Introduction 383

9.2 Membrane Distillation and Its Configurations 384

9.3 Sources of Acidic Effluent 385

9.4 Applications of MD for Acidic Wastewater Treatment 387

9.5 Hybrid MD Process 388

9.6 Implications 395

References 395

10 Demonstration of Long-Term Assessment on Performance of VMD for Textile Wastewater Treatment 401
Rakesh Baghel, Sarita Kalla, Sushant Upadhyaya and S. P. Chaurasia

10.1 Introduction 401

10.2 Transport Mechanism 403

10.3 Impact of Process Variables on Permeate Flux 405

10.4 Long-Term Performance Analysis of VMD 408

10.5 Scale Formation in Long-Term Assessment 411

Conclusion 412

Nomenclature 412

Greek Symbols 413

References 413

Section IV: Emerging Technologies & Processes 415

11 Application of Zero Valent Iron to Removal Chromium and Other Heavy Metals in Metallurgical Wastewater 417
Khac-Uan Do, Thi-Lien Le and Thuy-Lan Nguyen

11.1 Introduction 418

11.1.1 Wastewater Sources from Metallurgical Factories 418

11.1.2 Characteristics of Wastewater in Metallurgical Factories 419

11.1.3 Conventional Technologies for Treating Wastewater in Metallurgical Factories 420

11.1.4 Zero Valent Iron for Removing Heavy Metals 422

11.1.5 Objectives of the Study 422

11.2 Materials and Methods 423

11.2.1 Metallurgical Wastewater 423

11.2.2 Preparation of Zero Valent Iron 424

11.2.3 Batch Experiments 424

11.2.4 Analysis Methods 425

11.3 Results and Discussion 428

11.3.1 Effects of pH on Hexavalent Chromium Removal 428

11.3.2 Effects of Feo on Hexavalent Chromium Removal 430

11.3.3 Effects of Contact Time on Hexavalent Chromium Removal 431

11.3.4 Effects of pH on Heavy Metals Removal 432

11.3.5 Effects of PAC on Heavy Metals Removal 433

11.3.6 Effects of PAM on Heavy Metals Removal 434

11.4 Conclusion 435

Acknowledgements 436

References 436

12 Removal of Arsenic and Fluoride from Water Using Novel Technologies 441
Ishita Sarkar, Sankha Chakrabortty, Jayato Nayak and Parimal Pal

12.1 Background Study of Arsenic 442

12.1.1 Source and Existence of Arsenic 442

12.1.2 Effects of Arsenic 443

12.1.3 Regulation and Permissible Limit of Arsenic in Drinking Water 444

12.2 Background Study of Fluoride 445

12.2.1 Source and Existence of Fluoride 445

12.2.2 Effects of Fluoride 445

12.2.3 Regulation and Permissible Limit of Fluoride in Drinking Water 446

12.3 Technologies Used for Arsenic Removal from Contaminated Groundwater 447

12.3.1 Oxidation Method 447

12.3.2 Coagulation-Precipitation Method 450

12.3.3 Ion-Exchange Method 450

12.3.4 Adsorption Method 451

12.4 Technologies for Fluoride Removal from Contaminated Groundwater 456

12.4.1 Coagulation-Precipitation Method 456

12.4.2 Nalgonda Technique 456

12.4.3 Adsorption Method 458

12.4.4 Ion-Exchange Method 458

12.5 Membrane Technology Used for Arsenic and Fluoride Mitigations 460

12.5.1 Introduction of Membrane Technology 460

12.5.2 Arsenic Removal by Membrane Filtration 462

12.5.2.1 Arsenic Removal by Microfiltration System 462

12.5.2.2 Arsenic Removal by Ultrafiltration System 464

12.5.2.3 Arsenic Removal by Nanofiltration System 466

12.5.2.4 Arsenic Removal by Other Membrane-Based Process 472

12.5.3 Fluoride Removal by Different Membrane Filtration System 475

References 480

13 A Zero Liquid Discharge Strategy with MSF Coupled with Crystallizer 487
Jasneet Kaur Pala, Siddhartha Moulik, Asim K. Ghosh, Reddi Kamesh and Anirban Roy

13.1 Introduction 488

13.2 Minimum Energy Required for Desalination Process 490

13.2.1 Minimum Work Requirement 492

13.2.2 Recovery Ratio 494

13.3 Methodology and Simulation 494

13.3.1 MSF Process Description 494

13.3.2 Crystallizer Process Description 495

13.3.3 Modeling and Simulation 496

13.3.4 Input Parameters 501

13.4 Results and Discussion 504

13.4.1 Comparison of Energy Demand Between Simulated Model and Theoretical Model 504

13.4.2 Impact of Temperature and Flowrate on Thermal Energy 507

13.4.3 Impact on Thermal Energy During MLD and ZLD 507

13.4.4 Crystallization of Salts 511

13.5 Conclusion 511

13.6 Acknowledgment 512

References 512

14 A Critical Review on Prospects and Challenges in “Conceptualization to Technology Transfer” for Nutrient Recovery from Municipal Wastewater 517
Shubham Lanjewar, Birupakshya Mishra, Anupam Mukherjee, Aditi Mullick, Siddhartha Moulik and Anirban Roy

14.1 Introduction 518

14.2 Chemical Processes for Resources Recovery 520

14.2.1 Chemical Precipitation 521

14.2.1.1 Magnesium and Calcium – Phosphorous Precipitation 521

14.2.1.2 Aluminum – Phosphorous Precipitation 522

14.2.1.3 Ferric – Phosphorous Precipitation 523

14.2.2 Adsorption and Ion-Exchange 524

14.3 Biological Processes for Resources Recovery 528

14.3.1 Anammox Process for Nutrients Recovery 529

14.3.2 Algal Methods for Sewage Treatment and Nutrient Recovery 530

14.3.2.1 Nutrients Recovery from Micro-Algae Growth 530

14.3.2.2 Nutrients Recovery from Wetland Plants Growth 533

14.4 Membrane-Based Hybrid Technologies for Nutrients, Energy, and Water Recovery 534

14.4.1 Membrane Based Nutrients Recovery 534

14.4.2 Bio Electrochemical Systems (BES) for Resources Recovery 537

14.4.3 Nutrients Recovery via Osmotic Membrane Bioreactor 544

14.4.4 Economics and Feasibility of Processes 545

14.5 Conclusion 551

Acknowledgements 551

Disclosure 551

References 551

15 Sustainable Desalination: Future Scope in Indian Subcontinent 567
Rudra Rath, Asim K. Ghosh and Anirban Roy

15.1 Introduction 567

15.2 Water Supply and Demand in India 568

15.3 Current Status of Desalination in India 571

15.4 Commercially Available Technologies 572

15.4.1 Reverse Osmosis (RO) 572

15.4.2 Electrodialysis (ED) 573

15.4.3 Membrane Capacitive Deionization (MCDI) 574

15.4.4 Thermal Desalination 574

15.5 Possible Technological Intervention 576

15.5.1 Solar Desalination 576

15.5.1.1 Solar Stills 577

15.5.1.2 Photovoltaic (PV) Powered Desalination in India 579

15.5.2 Wave Power Desalination 580

15.5.3 Geothermal Desalination 580

15.5.4 Low-Temperature Thermal Desalination (LTTD) 580

15.5.5 Membrane Distillation (MD) 581

15.5.6 Forward Osmosis (FO) 582

15.6 Challenges and Implementation Strategies for Sustainable Use of Desalination Technologies 583

References 584

16 Desalination: Thermodynamic Modeling and Energetics 591
Shubham Lanjewar, Ridhish Kumar, Kunal Roy, Rudra Rath, Anupam Mukherjee and Anirban Roy

16.1 Introduction 592

16.2 Thermodynamics Modeling of Desalination 593

16.2.1 Electrolyte Solutions 594

16.2.2 Generalized Minimum Work of Separation 596

16.2.2.1 Mass Basis 597

16.2.2.2 Mole Basis 598

16.3 Modeling of Major Thermal Desalination Techniques 599

16.3.1 A General Multi-Effect Distillation (MED) Process Configuration for Desalination 601

16.3.1.1 Steady State Process Model of a MED System 601

16.3.1.2 Performance Parameters Analysis 606

16.3.2 A General Process Configuration of Multi-Stage Flash (MSF) Desalination 607

16.3.2.1 Steady State Process Model of an MSF System 608

16.3.3 A General Process Configuration of Mechanical Vapor Compression (MVC) Desalination 612

16.3.3.1 Steady State Process Model of an MVC System 613

16.4 Advantage of RO Above Other Mentioned Technologies 615

16.4.1 Advantages of RO Process 616

16.4.2 Energy Requirement in Desalination by an Evaporation Technique 617

16.4.3 Energy Requirements for Desalination by Reversible RO Process 617

16.4.4 Energy Analysis of Different Desalination Techniques 619

16.4.5 Economic Analysis of Different Desalination Techniques 620

16.5 Exergy Analysis of Reverse Osmosis 623

16.5.1 General Exergy Analysis in Desalination and Its Necessity 625

16.5.1.1 Exergy Efficiency and Its Improvement Potential Analysis 628

16.5.2 A Case Study on Reverse Osmosis Based Desalination Unit Reporting Exergy Performance 630

16.6 Conclusion 631

Nomenclature 632

References 636

Index 643